Publications
60 results found
LI J, Zhou N, Wong J, 2024, Tribological behavior of lubricant-impregnated porous polyimide, Friction, Vol: 12, Pages: 711-725, ISSN: 2223-7690
Porous materials impregnated with lubricants can be used in conditions where limited lubricant is desirable. In this work, three porous polyimides (PPI) with different densities were prepared. Polyalphaolefin (PAO) impregnated PPI (iPPI) discs were rubbed against steel and sapphire balls. In operando observations of the iPPI–sapphire contacts show that oil is released under an applied load, forming a meniscus around contacts. Cavitation at the outlet is created at high sliding speeds. The amount of released oil increases with increasing PPI porosity. Contact moduli, E*, estimated based on the actual contact size show that trapped oil in iPPIs contributes to load support. At higher speeds, tribological rehydration of the contact occurs in low density iPPI, with that E* rises with speed. For high density PPIs, high speeds give a constantly high E* which is limited by the viscoelastic properties of the PPI network and possibly the rate of oil exudation. Friction of iPPI–steel contacts is governed by the mechanical properties of the PPI, the flow of the lubricant, and the roughness of the PPI surfaces. For low- and medium- density (highly porous, high roughness) PPIs, large amount of oil is released, and lubrication is mainly via lubricant restricted in the contact in the pores and possibly tribological rehydration. For high density (low porosity) PPI, with lower roughness, hydrodynamic lubrication is achieved which gives the lowest friction. Our results show that polymeric porous materials for effective lubrication require the optimization of its surface roughness, stiffness, oil flow, and oil retentions.
Song W, Campen S, Shiel H, et al., 2024, Position of carbonyl group affects tribological performance of ester friction modifiers, ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, Vol: 16, Pages: 14252-14262, ISSN: 1944-8244
The tribological properties of lubricants can be effectively improved by the introduction of amphiphilic molecules, whose performance is largely affected by their polar head groups. In this work, the tribological performance in steel–steel contacts of two isomers, glycerol monostearate (GMS) and stearyl glycerate (SG), a glyceride and a glycerate, were investigated as organic friction modifiers (OFM) in hexadecane. SG exhibits a much lower friction coefficient and wear than GMS despite their similar structures. The same applies when comparing the performance of oleyl glycerate (OG) and its isomer, glycerol monooleate (GMO). Surface chemical analysis shows that SG forms a polar, carbon-based, tribofilm of around tens of nanometers thick, while GMS does not. This tribofilm shows low friction and robustness under nanotribology test, which may contribute to its superior performance at the macro-scale. The reason for this tribofilm formation can be due to the stronger adsorption of SG on the steel surface than that of GMS. The tribofilm formation can be stress-activated since lower friction and higher tribofilm coverage can be obtained under high load. This work offers insights into the lubrication mechanism of a novel OFM and provides strategies for OFM design.
Zhang J, Bolle B, Wong J, et al., 2024, Influence of atmosphere on carbonaceous film formation in rubbing, metallic contacts, Tribology Letters, Vol: 72, ISSN: 1023-8883
Many previous researchers have reported the formation of carbonaceous tribofilms from organic lubricants on rubbing metallic surfaces. This paper shows that a very important factor in the formation of such tribofilms is the presence or absence of molecular oxygen. When steel surfaces are rubbed in saturated hydrocarbon lubricants in the absence of oxygen, for example in nitrogen or hydrogen gas, carbonaceous films form very readily,resulting in low friction and wear. However, when a significant amount of oxygen is present, as is the case in air, carbonaceous tribofilms are not generally formed, so friction and wear are very high, with values comparable to those seen when no lubricant is present.In-situ Raman analysis combined with gas switching experiments shows that the carbonaceous films formed during rubbing when no oxygen is present are rapidly removed during rubbing in air, while tests in which lubricant is removed during a test in N2 indicate that the films are quite weak. This suggests that these carbonaceous films are being continually removed and replenished during rubbing in oxygen-free conditions.It is proposed that these carbonaceous films are formed from hydrocarbyl free radicals that are generated mechanochemically from hydrocarbon molecules during rubbing. In the absence of oxygen, these free radicals then react together to form a carbonaceous film.However, when oxygen is present, the hydrocarbyl free radicals react extremely rapidly with oxygen molecules to produce hydroperoxyl free radicals and so are no longer available to generate a carbonaceous tribofilm.
Guo Y, di Mare L, Wong JSS, 2023, A statistic study on raspberry vesicles: formation and properties, Polymer, Vol: 280, Pages: 1-8, ISSN: 0032-3861
This paper gives a statistic study on the formation of ABC raspberry vesicles under bulk swelling with DPD simulations. All vesicles formed through a disc wrap-up process, i.e. a disc micelle wraps up to form a vesicle. The lifetimes of the disc micelles before they become vesicles can be characterized as short and long (tfast and tslow). Vesicles formed with tfast have a high loading efficiency and a wide size distribution. Most of them have low membrane permeability. They resist structural deformation under shear due to their high bending rigidity. Vesicles formed with tslow have a narrow size distribution. They are small, and have low loading efficiency. A large portion of them have permeable membranes with low bending rigidity and structural defects. Shear could restructure these vesicles, and hence modify their permeability. Adjusting the repulsion between solvophobic polymers and solvents impacts on lifetimes of disc micelles. A reduction in such repulsion favours tslow. The knowledge obtained can be used to design raspberry vesicles of desired size, loading and cargo release properties.
Ueda M, Wong JSS, Spikes H, 2023, Influence of Dumbbell Base Oil Blends on Micropitting, Tribology International, Pages: 108578-108578, ISSN: 0301-679X
Song W, Zhang J, Campen S, et al., 2023, Lubrication mechanism of a strong tribofilm by imidazolium ionic liquid, Friction, Vol: 11, Pages: 425-440, ISSN: 2223-7690
Friction modifiers are surface-active additives added to base fluids to reduce frictionbetween rubbing surfaces. Their effectiveness depends on their interactions with rubbingsurfaces and may be mitigated by the choice of the base fluid. In this work, theperformance of an imidazolium ionic liquid (ImIL) additive in polyethylene-glycol (PEG)and 1,4-butanediol for lubricating steel/steel and diamond-like-carbon/diamond-likecarbon (DLC-DLC) contacts were investigated. ImIL containing PEG reduces frictionmore effectively in steel-steel than DLC-DLC contacts. In contrast, adding ImIL in1,4-butanediol results in an increase in friction in steel-steel contacts. Results fromRaman spectroscopy, XPS and FIB-TEM reveal that a surface film is formed on steelduring rubbing in ImIL containing PEG. This film consists of two layers. The top layer iscomposed of amorphous carbon and are easily removed during rubbing. The bottom layer,which contains iron oxide and nitride compound, adheres strongly on the steel surface.This film maintains its effectiveness in a steel-steel contact even after ImIL additives are2depleted. Such film is not observed in 1,4-butanediol where the adsorption of ImIL ishindered, as suggested by QCM measurements. No benefit is observed when the basefluid on its own is sufficiently lubricious, as in the case of DLC surfaces.This work provides fundamental insights on how compatibilities among base fluid,friction modifier and rubbing surface affect performance of IL as surface active additives.It reveals the structure of an ionic liquid surface film, which is effective and durable. Theknowledge is useful for guiding future IL additive development.
Yap KK, Fukuda K, Vail JR, et al., 2022, Spatiotemporal mapping for in-situ and real-time tribological analysis in polymer-metal contacts, Tribology International, Vol: 171, Pages: 1-16, ISSN: 0301-679X
Spatiotemporal mapping (SMA) is a graphical technique to visualise the evolution of data with time and space during a process. This paper discusses the benefits of SMA in the field of polymer tribology via two highly different polymer/metal sliding systems. The SMA is found useful for the qualitative and quantitative characterisation and analysis of the transfer phenomena at the contact interface during repeated sliding, e.g., the slide-roll mechanism of transfer lumps, the severe-to-mild wear transition due to the tribo-chemical reaction of PTFE, the accumulation of wear debris, and the formation of friction-reducing back-transfer polyimide films. Additionally, the SMA helps spot various abnormal tribological behaviours, such as the local removal of oxides on a misaligned disc that would otherwise be overlooked.
Campen S, Fong J, Song W, et al., 2022, Thermal degradation of n-hexadecane base oil and its impact on boundary friction and surface adsorption, Tribology International, Vol: 170, ISSN: 0301-679X
The chemical and physical properties of lubricants can alter during use. High temperatures may cause thermal autooxidation of the base oil, which could impact the performance of lubricant additives. Here, the effect of high temperature on the properties of n-hexadecane base oil is investigated. n-Hexadecane undergoes an irreversible transition from high to low boundary friction at 122–134 °C when heated in air. FTIR, UV–vis and NMR spectroscopy indicate the presence of carbonyl- and hydroxyl-containing oxidation products (carboxylic acids, alcohols, esters, ketones and aldehydes). ATR-FTIR shows that iron carboxylates form exclusively inside and around the rubbed friction surface. QCM-D is used to investigate the adsorption of degradation products onto an iron(III) oxide surface and reveals that almost half the adsorbed mass is effectively irreversibly adsorbed.
Gendreau E, Wong J, 2022, Characterizing the velocimetry of viscosity modifier-containing lubricants in the elastohydrodynamic regime, Tribology and Lubrication Technology, Vol: 78, Pages: 32-35, ISSN: 1545-858X
Puhan D, Jiang S, Wong J, 2022, Effect of carbon fiber inclusions on polymeric transfer film formation on steel, Composites Science and Technology, Vol: 217, Pages: 1-10, ISSN: 0266-3538
High performance polymers (HPPs) with good tribological properties are commonly used in dry contacts, wheretheir tribological performance often depends on properties of polymeric transfer materials (transfer layers) oncounterfaces. Most HPPs suffer from high temperature degradation due to frictional heating, leading to excessivedeformation and wear. Incorporating thermally conducting fillers increases their thermal conductivity andmechanical strength. The impact of these fillers on formation and properties of transfer layers, however, isunclear. In this work the effect of short carbon fiber fillers (CFs) on the nature of the transfer layers andtribological performance of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and polyetheretherketone-polybenzimidizole (PBP)against steel were investigated at temperature up to 300 ◦C. Transfer layers of CF reinforced PEEK and PBPcontain CF-related materials, resulting in a reduction of friction as compared to neat PEEK and PBP, especiallyaround the glass transition temperature of PEEK (Tg− PEEK) when the transfer layer is relatively thick. While theinclusion of CFs increases the bulk thermal conductivity of polymer composites, the average contact temperatureis not affected. Rather, local hot spots are generated. As a result, their transfer layers may have formed morereadily and have undergone more severe degradation than those from neat polymer. At 300 ◦C, the PBP + CFtransfer layer is thin possibly due to abrasion by CFs dislodged from the matrix. The improvement in the wearresistance due to CF inclusion is observed with PBP up to 300 ◦C due to its improved mechanical strength. PEEK+ CF however suffers higher wear than PEEK below Tg− PEEK. Above Tg− PEEK, a thick transfer layer is formed andthe wear of PEEK + CF reduces.
Fellows AP, Puhan D, Wong J, et al., 2022, Probing the nanoscale heterogeneous mixing in a high-performance polymer blend, Polymers, Vol: 14, ISSN: 2073-4360
The blend of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and polybenzimidazole (PBI) produces a high-performance blend (PPB) that is a potential replacement material in several industries due to its high temperature stability and desirable tribological properties. Understanding the nanoscale structure and interface of the two domains of the blend is critical for elucidating the origin of these desirable properties. Whilst achieving the physical characterisation of the domain structures is relatively uncomplicated, the elucidation of structures at the interface presents a significant experimental challenge. In this work, we combine atomic force microscopy (AFM) with an IR laser (AFM-IR) and thermal cantilever probes (nanoTA) to gain insights into the chemical heterogeneity and extent of mixing within the blend structure for the first time. The AFM-IR and nanoTA measurements show that domains in the blend are compositionally different from those of the pure PEEK and PBI polymers, with significant variations observed in a transition region several microns wide in proximity to domain boundary. This strongly points to physical mixing of the two components on a molecular scale at the interface. The versatility intrinsic to the combined methodology employed in this work provides nano- and microscale chemical information that can be used to understand the link between properties of different length scales across a wide range of materials.
Zhang J, Campen S, Wong J, et al., 2022, Oxidational wear in lubricated contacts – or is it?, Tribology International, Vol: 165, Pages: 1-9, ISSN: 0301-679X
This study examines the influence of inert gas atmosphere on the wear behaviour of rubbing steel-on-steel contacts lubricated by two hydrocarbon base fluids, isooctane and hexadecane. It is found that for both fluids, wear and mean friction in nitrogen and argon atmospheres are considerably lower than in dry air. As the oxygen content in nitrogen is increased, mean friction and wear both increase, to level out above about 10% oxygen (an O2 partial pressure of 10 kPa). Raman analysis of rubbed surfaces shows the presence of a carbon film on surfaces rubbed in inert gas and at low O2 levels. This film is not observed at high O2 levels.These findings indicate that the prevailing model of oxidational wear in lubricated contacts, that states that wear is greater in air than in inert gas because of corrosion by oxygen, is largely incorrect. Instead, the deleterious effect of oxygen on lubricated wear is primarily due to it preventing the formation of a lubricious, carbon-based boundary film that is generated from hydrocarbon base fluids on rubbing steel surfaces in inert gas conditions.The ability of organic fuels and lubricants to form carbon-based films on rubbing steel surfaces in inert atmospheres may provide a mechanism for reducing friction and wear of fuel- and oil-lubricated machine components. The study also provides a platform from which to design lubricant formulations for use in inert atmospheres.
Yang S, Zhang D, Wong J, et al., 2021, Interactions between ZDDP and an oil-soluble ionic liquid additive, Tribology International, Vol: 158, ISSN: 0301-679X
Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDP) and a P-based ionic liquid (IL) were added in a polyalphaolefin base oil (PAO). Their tribological performance in steel-steel contacts in the boundary (BL) and “starved” elastohydrodynamic (sEHL) lubrication conditions were investigated.In BL conditions, IL reduces friction at 40 °C. It reduces both friction and wear at 100 °C. ZDDP reduces wear but has relatively high friction at both temperatures. Synergy between IL and ZDDP is observed only at 100 °C, due to the generation of a smoother worn surface and potentially a thicker boundary film.In sEHL conditions at room temperature, ZDDP, IL and their mixture change the inlet condition and increase lubricant film thickness. No synergy between the two additives is observed.
Jiang S, Yuan C, Wong J, 2021, Effectiveness of glycerol-monooleate in high-performance polymer tribo-systems, Tribology International, Vol: 155, Pages: 1-9, ISSN: 0301-679X
High performance polymers possessing superior mechanical properties may replace metal components and improve machine efficiency. Successful replacement, however, relies on the compatibility of these polymers with current engineering systems, including lubricants and their additives. This study examines the compatibility of two high performance polymers, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and polyamide-imide (PAI), with glycerol monooleate (GMO), an organic friction modifier (OFM) commonly used in steel-steel rubbing contacts. Friction tests were conducted with a ball-on-disc geometry in reciprocating motion at 100 °C in polyalphaolefin (PAO) base oil. GMO reduces friction in polymer-steel and polymer-polymer contacts. When steel is involved, the use of GMO and oleic acid (OA) give similar friction coefficients. Since OA is believed to be a hydrolyzed product of GMO in steel-steel contacts, our results show that the interaction of OA with steel controls friction in polymer-steel contacts when GMO is the additive. Results from FTIR and Raman spectroscopies show that steel surfaces contain little to no polymeric materials, nor iron oxides after rubbing against polymers in GMO- and OA-containing PAO. This supports OFM layers are formed on steel surfaces. These OFM layers prevent polymer transfer layer formation and possibly protect steel surfaces from oxidation. Our results show that using OFM that interacts strongly with steel can, contrary to dry friction, eliminate the need of polymeric transfer film on steel for achieving low friction in polymer-steel contacts.
Garcia Gonzalez C, Ueda M, Spikes H, et al., 2021, Temperature dependence of Molybdenum dialkyl dithiocarbamate (MoDTC) tribofilms via time-resolved Raman spectroscopy, Scientific Reports, Vol: 11, Pages: 3621-3621, ISSN: 2045-2322
Molybdenum dialkyl dithiocarbamate (MoDTC) is a friction reducing additive commonly used in lubricants. MoDTC works by forming a low-friction molybdenum disulphide (MoS<sub>2</sub>) film (tribofilm) on rubbed surfaces. MoDTC-induced MoS<sub>2</sub> tribofilms have been studied extensively ex-situ; however, there is no consensus on the chemical mechanism of its formation process. By combining Raman spectroscopy with a tribometer, effects of temperature and shear stress on MoS<sub>2</sub> tribofilm formation in steel-steel contacts were examined. Time-resolved Raman spectra of the tribofilm were acquired, together with the instantaneous friction coefficient. The tribofilm is constantly being formed and removed mechanically during rubbing. Increasing shear stress promotes MoS<sub>2</sub> formation. The nature of the tribofilm is temperature-dependent, with high-temperature tribofilms giving a higher friction than lower temperature films. Below a critical temperature T<sub>c</sub>, a small amount of MoS<sub>2</sub> gives significant friction reduction. Above T<sub>c,</sub> a patchy film with more MoS<sub>2</sub>, together with a substantial amount of amorphous carbon attributed to base oil degradation, forms. The composition of this tribofilm evolves during rubbing and a temporal correlation is found between carbon signal intensity and friction. Our results highlight the mechanochemical nature of tribofilm formation process and the role of oil degradation in the effectiveness of friction modifier MoDTC.
Fry B, Chui MY, Moody G, et al., 2020, Interactions between organic friction modifier additives, Tribology International, Vol: 151, Pages: 1-8, ISSN: 0301-679X
The interactions of different additives in engine oils can create synergistic or antagonistic effects. This paper studies how mixing different organic friction modifier additives affects friction reducing properties of lubricants in the boundary lubrication regime. Amines of different degree of saturation were mixed with either glycerol monooleate (GMO) or oleic acid in hexadecane. The model lubricants thus formed were characterised with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Friction tests in reciprocating motion using ball-on-disc steel-steel contacts were conducted to examine the tribological performance of these lubricants. Worn surfaces were examined using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Oleic acid and oleylamine, a primary amine. Were found to form a partial ionic liquid, providing synergistic friction reduction. This positive interaction reduces with increasing degree of saturation of the amine. No synergistic effect was observed between GMO and oleylamine,suggesting that GMO does not hydrolyse into a carboxylic acid within a rubbing contact in the presence of amine. Keywords: Boundary Lubrication, Additives, Friction Abbreviations: organic friction modifier (OFM); glycerol monooleate (GMO); ionic liquid (IL); oleylamine (OA); diocylamine (DA); trihexylamine (TA); dimethylhexadecaylamine (DM16); high frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR); X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).
Fry B, Moody G, Spikes HA, et al., 2020, Adsorption of organic friction modifier additives, Langmuir, Vol: 36, Pages: 1147-1155, ISSN: 0743-7463
Organic friction modifier additives (OFMs) are surfactant molecules added to engine oils to reduce friction in the boundary lubrication regime. They are thought to work by forming an absorbed layer which provides low friction. This paper studied the relationship between the adsorption of OFMs and their friction and wear reducing properties in a rubbing contact formed by a stationary glass ball and a rotating silicon disk under the boundary lubrication regime. The effect of molecular structure was investigated by using OFMs of various tail saturation and head group chemistry. OFM tested were oleic acid, octadecylamine, oleylamine and glycerol monooleate. The thickness of an OFM adsorbed layer in hexadecane, examined in-situ by spectroscopic ellipsometry and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), depends on the molecular structure and the concentration of the OFM. As expected, saturated, linear chain gives the thickest film. A critical OFM layer thickness of about 0.6 nm is necessary to achieve low initial and maximum friction. The thicker OFM layers are accompanied by narrower wear tracks, which are rougher than the wider, smoother wear tracks formed with thinner OFM layers. The interplay between the thickness of the OFM layer and wear track surface roughness results in all OFM layers having similar steady friction. This shows that the apparent effect of OFM depends on the stage of rubbing test: initially on friction; and then subsequently on surface damage. Despite OFMs and the base oil having similar refractive indices, ellipsometry was found to be a suitable technique for examining the adsorption of OFM additives from an oil based solution, and showed reasonable correlation with QCM results.
Zhang J, Ewen JP, Ueda M, et al., 2020, Mechanochemistry of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate on steel surfaces under elastohydrodynamic lubrication conditions, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, Vol: 12, Pages: 6662-6676, ISSN: 1944-8244
Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) is added to engine lubricants to reduce wear and ensure reliable operation. ZDDP reacts under rubbing conditions to form protective zinc/iron phosphate tribofilms on steel surfaces. Recently, it has been demonstrated that this process can be promoted by applied stresses in lubricated contacts, as well as temperature, and is thus mechanochemical in origin. In this study, a tribology test rig capable of applying very high loads has been developed to generate ZDDP tribofilms under full-film elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) conditions in steel/steel ball-on-disk contacts. This provides a well-defined temperature and stress environment with negligible direct asperity contact in which to study mechanochemical processes. ZDDPs with branched primary and secondary alkyl substituents have been studied in three base oils, two with high EHL friction and one with low EHL friction. In the high EHL friction base oils, the tribofilm growth rate increases exponentially with shear stress and temperature for both ZDDPs, as predicted by a stress augmented thermal activation model. Conversely, under otherwise identical conditions, negligible ZDDP tribofilm formation takes place in the low EHL friction base oil. This confirms that the ZDDP reaction is driven by macroscopic shear stress rather than hydrostatic pressure. The secondary ZDDP forms tribofilms considerably faster than the primary ZDDP under equivalent conditions, suggesting that the initial decomposition reaction is the rate determining step for tribofilm formation. The rate of tribofilm growth is independent of ZDDP concentration over the range studied, indicating that this process follows zero-order kinetics. Under full-film EHL conditions, ZDDP tribofilm formation is promoted by macroscopic shear stress applied through the base oil molecules, which induces asymmetric stress on adsorbed ZDDP molecules to promote their decomposition and initiate rapid phosphate polymerisation.
Campen S, Moorhouse SJ, Wong JSS, 2020, Mechanism of an asphaltene inhibitor in different depositing environments: Influence of colloid stability, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol: 184, ISSN: 0920-4105
Additives are used to reduce unwanted carbonaceous deposits of asphaltenes on surfaces during petroleum production from natural oil and gas reservoirs. The working mechanism of formulated additive packages can be multifaceted. Additives may be effective in the bulk fluid by preventing asphaltenes aggregation, as well as at the surface by preventing asphaltenes adhesion. In this paper, we investigate the numerous different mechanisms by which an asphaltene inhibitor can interfere with the formation of carbonaceous deposits using a combination of techniques including dynamic light scattering to determine particle size distribution, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring to examine deposition behaviour and atomic force microscopy to probe deposit morphology. The tested inhibitor prevents deposition of asphaltenes in toluene, where asphaltenes exist as a stable colloidal dispersion of nanoaggregates, by forming barrier-type films that inhibit asphaltenes adhesion and displacing adsorbed thin films of asphaltenes. However, inhibitor performance in heptane-toluene, where asphaltenes are destabilised, depends on the degree of destabilisation. At low heptane volume fraction, inhibitor slows the rate of deposition and deposition rate decreases with increasing inhibitor concentration. However, at high heptane volume fraction, inhibitor can increase the deposition rate, particularly when used in high concentration. At high heptane volume fraction, inhibitor addition alters the morphology of the deposit from that consisting of large flocculent aggregates to that consisting of smaller, submicrometer aggregates. This is consistent with the finding that inhibitor acts as an anti-agglomerant and prevents the formation of large aggregates in the bulk liquid. This paper shows that the impact of inhibitor addition depends on the environmental conditions encountered and the degree of destabilisation of the asphaltenes. Where inhibitor addition alters the nature of depo
Fry B, Moody G, Spikes H, et al., 2019, Effect of surface cleaning on performance of organic friction modifiers, Tribology Transactions, Vol: 63, Pages: 305-313, ISSN: 1040-2004
The performance of surface active additives, such as friction modifiers, depends on their interactions with surfaces. Their effectiveness thus hinges upon the surface conditions. In this work, the effect of cleaning methods of test substrates on the friction reduction capabilities of different organic friction modifier (OFM) additives was investigated. 52100 steel discs and balls were the test specimens. They were cleaned in five different ways. The cleaned surfaces were characterised by using ellipsometry and atomic force microscopy. The tribological performance of stearic acid (STA), octadecylamine (ODA) and octadecanol (ODO) on these surfaces were then tested. As-received steel surfaces were covered with contaminants which may impede the formation of OFM surface layer. Cleaning these surfaces with solvents cannot completely removed these contaminants, with residue layers remain. Cleaning with oxygen or argon plasma results in cleaner surfaces as compared to those cleaned by solvents only. The impact of the choice of cleaning methods on friction depends on the strength of the interaction between the OFM and the steel surface, which determines the ability of an OFM to displace surface contaminations. Cleaner surfaces result in lower initial friction for STA and ODA. Steady state friction is also affected, but to a smaller extent. It may be because most containments remained in the wear track are mechanically removed during rubbing.
Campen SM, Moorhouse SJ, Wong JSS, 2019, Effect of aging on the removal of asphaltene deposits with aromatic solvent, Langmuir, Vol: 35, Pages: 11995-12008, ISSN: 0743-7463
Surface-deposition of destabilised colloidal particles of asphaltenes poses a serious and costly problem during petroleum production. Remediation of asphaltene-fouled well-bore and surface facilities is often undertaken by flowing aromatic solvent to remove deposited films. However, little is known about the properties of deposited asphaltene films during their removal by solvent-rinsing. Here, we carry out quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) experiments to investigate surface-deposition of destabilized colloidal particles of asphaltenes and their subsequent removal by solvent-rinsing. It is shown that the properties of deposited films during solvent removal depend on the history of the deposit. Newly formed deposit films are removed immediately without significant change in their mechanical properties during removal. However, deposits that remain on the surface for an extended time in a poor solvent (a low-asphaltene solubility solvent), “aged deposits”, are more difficult to remove and exhibit increased dissipation during the removal period, indicating that they swell and are softer. Liquid-cell atomic force microscopy (AFM) confirms that aged deposits swell when the quality of the solvent is subsequently improved by exchanging for a high-asphaltene solubility solvent. Deposit swelling is accompanied by a change in film morphology, from particulate to continuous. Stubborn deposits of aged asphaltene films, which remain after solvent-rinsing, may be partly removed by flowing dissolved asphaltenes in good solvent. Hence, reinjection of asphaltenes during remediation can aid deposit removal.
Puhan D, Wong J, 2019, Properties of Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) transferred materials in a PEEK-steel contact, Tribology International, Vol: 135, Pages: 189-199, ISSN: 0301-679X
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a high performance polymer that can be an alternative to metal for some moving components in unlubricated conditions. During rubbing, PEEK is transferred to the counterface. The formation and properties of PEEK transfer films on steel and sapphire are studied by in-situ observations of PEEK wear process, contact temperatures and triboemission, as well as FTIR and Raman spectroscopies ex situ. Our results suggest that frictional heating alone may not be sufficient to generate PEEK degradation observed in the transfer materials. Triboplasma observed during rubbing, together with the mechanical shear, may promote generations of radicals and degradation of PEEK, which subsequently influence the properties of PEEK transfer film and performance of polymer-metal tribopair.
Puhan D, Nevshupa R, Wong J, et al., 2019, Transient aspects of plasma luminescence induced by triboelectrification of polymers, Tribology International, Vol: 130, Pages: 366-377, ISSN: 0301-679X
Transient electric gas discharges that occur around sliding interfaces during contact electrification of polymers were studied at millisecond timescales and with micrometre resolution. Deduced vibrational temperatures indicate cold plasma resulting from positive corona discharge. At millisecond timescales, previously unseen rapid discharge events are observed, and modelling suggests that these result from streamer development, triggered by electron emission from the polymer surface. Those which occur over a period of several seconds are shown to be caused by competition between charge generation and the formation of polymer films. The findings explain the interplay between charging and plasma generation and their dependence on wear processes.
Jeffreys S, di Mare L, Liu X, et al., 2019, Elastohydrodynamic lubricant flow with nanoparticle tracking, RSC Advances, Vol: 9, Pages: 1441-1450, ISSN: 2046-2069
Lubricants operating in elastohydrodynamic (EHD) contacts exhibit local variations in rheological properties when the contact pressure rises. Direct evidence of this behaviour has only been obtained by examining through-thickness velocity profiles U(z) of lubricants in a contact using luminescence-based imaging velocimetry. In the present study, nanoparticles (NPs) are added to polybutene (PB) as tracers to investigate the effect of pressure on the flow of PB in an EHD contact. By tracking NPs in the contact, particle velocity distributions f(U) under various pressures are obtained and found to be pressure dependent. Results show quantitatively that f(U) and U(z) are correlated and thus confirm that U(z) of PB changes from Couette flow to partial plug flow above a critical pressure. This confirmation highlights the complexity of lubricant rheology in a high pressure contact.
Jean-Fulcrand A, Masen MA, Bremner T, et al., 2019, Effect of temperature on tribological performance of polyetheretherketone-polybenzimidazole blend, Tribology International, Vol: 129, Pages: 5-15, ISSN: 0301-679X
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is one of the most commonly used High Performance Polymers (HPP) although its high temperature performance is poor. In this study, polybenzimidazole (PBI), a HPP with one of the highest glass transition temperatures currently available, is blended to PEEK to form a 50:50 blend (TU60). Tribological performance of the blend (TU60) was investigated by rubbing it against steel at temperatures up to 280 °C. Results obtained are compared to those from neat PEEK and neat PBI. All three polymers were thermally stable during the duration of tests. However chemical analyses on polymeric transfer layers on steel surfaces and polymer debris suggest polymer degradation. The degradation observed is shear-assisted, possibly promoted by shear heating. Indeed the estimated interfacial temperature based on Jaeger model was above the melting point of PEEK in some cases. TU60 outperforms PEEK in all test conditions and PBI at 280 °C. TU60 formed transfer layers on steel similar to that of PEEK. When contact temperature is closed to the melting point of PEEK, PEEK in the TU60 creates a low strength transfer layer which acts as an interfacial lubricant. This reduces friction which in turn reduces PBI degradation in TU60 at high temperature. This work provides a strategy for creating interfacial layers to improve polymer tribological performance while maintaining the integrity of the polymer.
- Abstract
- Open Access Link
- Cite
- Citations: 25
Dench J, di Mare L, Morgan N, et al., 2018, Comparing the molecular and global rheology of a fluid under high pressures, Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol: 20, Pages: 30267-30280, ISSN: 1463-9076
The viscosity of liquids is a strong function of pressure. While viscosity is relatively easy to measure at low pressure, high-pressure rheology presents significant experimental challenges. As a result, rheological models are often used to extrapolate viscosity from low pressure measurements to higher pressures. Techniques to obtain data over a wide range of pressures and shear rates, as well as understanding the validity and limitations of methods to fill the gaps in the available data, are therefore of crucial practical and theoretical importance. This work examines the viscosity of polyalphaolefin (PAO) by combining average global area averaged measurements at high pressure and local molecular viscosity measurements at moderate pressures. Viscosities spanning five orders of magnitude are examined at pressures up to 720 MPa. High pressure results were obtained with friction measurements where the fluid is sheared between two surfaces in a loaded point contact. The local molecular microviscosity at medium and low pressures was measured by applying a technique based on fluorescence anisotropy, which probes the rotational motion of dye molecules in a nanoscale film under shear. Both sets of measurements are taken in the same configuration, an elastohydrodynamic (EHD) contact. This is the first set of quantitative local viscosity measurements that have been verified against both friction and high pressure rheometry measurements. Commonly used rheological models were compared to experimental results. Our work shows that fluorescence anisotropy and friction measurements can be used to determine the viscosity of liquids over a wide range of conditions from a single experimental setup. The results obtained match results from low- and high-pressure rheometry for PAO. The importance of correcting friction data for pressure non-uniformity, temperature and shear thinning is also highlighted.
Campen S, Smith B, Wong J, 2018, Deposition of asphaltene from destabilized dispersions in heptane-toluene, Energy and Fuels, Vol: 32, Pages: 9159-9171, ISSN: 0887-0624
Deposition of carbonaceous materials, such as asphaltene, is a major problem in petroleum production. During production, changing environmental conditions destabilize asphaltene, resulting in dispersions that are out of equilibrium, where asphaltene is aggregating or flocculating. Key to developing the most effective strategies for tackling this problem is a fundamental understanding of asphaltene deposition behavior. A quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) is used to study asphaltene deposition from destabilized dispersions generated by in-line mixing of asphaltene in toluene (a solvent) with n-heptane (a precipitant). The effects of heptane:toluene ratio and destabilization time are investigated. At high heptane:toluene ratio, the rate of asphaltene aggregation is faster, and large flocs form by the time the flowing liquid reaches the QCM cell. In this case, the rate of deposition decreases with deposition time. At low heptane:toluene ratio, the rate of asphaltene aggregation is slower; hence large flocs do not form before the flowing liquid reaches the QCM cell, and deposition of smaller aggregates occurs. Here, the deposition rate is constant with time. The deposited mass is greatest before the formation of large flocs and at short destabilization times, where the particle distribution is furthest from equilibrium. Destabilized small particles existing immediately after a destabilization event pose a greater deposition problem than the flocs that subsequently form. This may be a contributing factor in the existence of deposition “hotspots” at certain locations in the production pipeline. Pushing destabilized dispersions to their new equilibrium distributions as quickly as possible may be a preventative strategy to combat deposition. The dissipation–frequency relationship monitored by QCM-D is sensitive to the nature of deposited asphaltene films and may be used as a diagnostic tool.
Wong J, Jean-Fulcrand A, Masen M, 2018, Effect of temperature on tribology of PBI/PEEK blend, 256th National Meeting and Exposition of the American-Chemical-Society (ACS) - Nanoscience, Nanotechnology and Beyond, Publisher: AMER CHEMICAL SOC, ISSN: 0065-7727
Yang S, Wong J, Zhou F, 2018, Ionic liquid additives for mixed and elastohydrodynamic lubrication, Tribology Transactions, Vol: 61, Pages: 816-826, ISSN: 1040-2004
Ionic liquids (ILs), both as pure lubricants and lubricant additives, have been demonstrated extensively to exhibit excellent tribological performance in terms of friction and wear reduction in the boundary lubrication (BL) regime. Since engineering contacts experience boundary and mixed, as well as full film lubrication depending on operating conditions, it is crucial to examine if lubrication regimes other BL regime can also benefit from the use of ILs. The objective of this work is to investigate the tribological performance of IL additives in the mixed lubrication (ML) and the elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) regimes. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) was used as the base fluid. ILs were synthesized in situ by dissolving lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI) in PEG. Friction and film thickness measurements were employed to investigate the effectiveness of IL additives at room temperature, 60°C and 80°C; at various loads and slide-roll ratios (SRRs). The effect of IL additives on the rheological behavior of PEG was also investigated. The EHL film thickness increases with increasing IL concentration. EHL friction is however only mildly affected by IL additives. In the ML regime, IL additives can reduce friction and metal wear as compared to pure PEG in mild conditions. It is conjectured that IL forms sacrificial layers and protects the rubbing surfaces.
Guo Y, di Mare L, Li R, et al., 2018, Cargo release from polymeric vesicles under shear, Polymers, Vol: 10, Pages: 336-336, ISSN: 2073-4360
In this paper we study the release of cargo from polymeric nano-carriers under shear. Vesicles formed by two star block polymers— A12B6C2 ( ABC ) and A12B6A2 ( ABA )—and one linear block copolymer— A14B6 ( AB ), are investigated using dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. A - and C -blocks are solvophobic and B -block is solvophilic. The three polymers form vesicles of different structures. The vesicles are subjected to shear both in bulk and between solvophobic walls. In bulk shear, the mechanisms of cargo release are similar for all vesicles, with cargo travelling through vesicle membrane with no preferential release location. When sheared between walls, high cargo release rate is only observed with ABC vesicle after it touches the wall. For ABC vesicle, the critical condition for high cargo release rate is the formation of wall-polymersome interface after which the effect of shear rate in promoting cargo release is secondary. High release rate is achieved by the formation of solvophilic pathway allowing cargo to travel from the vesicle cavity to the vesicle exterior. The results in this paper show that well controlled target cargo release using polymersomes can be achieved with polymers of suitable design and can potentially be very useful for engineering applications. As an example, polymersomes can be used as carriers for surface active friction reducing additives which are only released at rubbing surfaces where the additives are needed most.
This data is extracted from the Web of Science and reproduced under a licence from Thomson Reuters. You may not copy or re-distribute this data in whole or in part without the written consent of the Science business of Thomson Reuters.