Publications
184 results found
Burgess D, Carrabin L, Kirkman R, et al., 2011, A mass and energy balance multi-criteria assessment for waste management options in the UK, Thirteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Sardinia, Italy, 03 Oct 2011 - 07 Oct 2011
Donovan SM, Skartsila AM, Head MK, et al., 2011, An Initial Investigation into the Use of a Flux Chamber Technique to Measure Soil-Atmosphere Gas Exchanges from Application of Biosolids to UK Soils, Applied and Environmental Soil Science, Vol: 2011, Pages: 1-10, ISSN: 1687-7667
<jats:p>While a significant amount of work has been conducted to assess the concentration of pollutants in soils and waterways near land that has been amended with biosolids, a relatively small body of research investigating emissions to atmosphere is available in the literature. Some studies have indicated that while the CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub>emissions from soils decrease with fertiliser application, the CH<jats:sub>4</jats:sub>and N<jats:sub>2</jats:sub>O emissions might be increased, offsetting the benefit. The objective of the research presented in this paper was to address this gap, by the use of a flux chamber technique to measure soil-atmosphere gas exchanges from the application of biosolids to land. This was done by applying three different types of biosolids to soils and measuring gases at the soil-atmosphere interface. The measurements were taken on areas with three different types of vegetation. The gases were collected using a flux chamber technique and analysed by gas chromatography. The results presented here are preliminary findings of an ongoing experiment. Insignificant variation appeared to occur between different areas of vegetation; however, small variations in gas concentrations were observed indicating a need for continued monitoring of soil-atmosphere gas exchanges to determine the long-term impacts on the atmosphere and the environment.</jats:p>
Vlachopoulou M, Iacovidou E, Ohandja DG, et al., 2011, Anaerobic Digestion Of Food Waste: Using The Model ADM1 To Simulate Its Performance And Assess Its Potential As A Waste Management Option, Thirteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
Kriekouki A, Gronow J, Kirkman R, et al., 2011, The way forward in assessing options for municipal waste management: the treatment of mixed plastics as a case study, Thirteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Sardinia, Italy, 03 Oct 2011 - 07 Oct 2011
Kadar E, Simmance F, Martin O, et al., 2010, The influence of engineered Fe(2)O(3) nanoparticles and soluble (FeCl(3)) iron on the developmental toxicity caused by CO(2)-induced seawater acidification., Environmental Pollution, Vol: 158, Pages: 3490-3497
An embryo development assay using a common test organism, the edible mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), exposed to both Fe(2)O(3) nanoparticles and soluble FeCl(3) at 3 acidic pHs, has provided evidence for the following: (1) CO(2) enriched seawater adjusted to pH projections for carbon capture leakage scenarios (CCS) significantly impaired embryo development; (2) under natural pH conditions, no significant effect was detected following exposure of embryos to Fe, no matter if in nano- or soluble form; (3) at pH of natural seawater nano-Fe particles aggregate into large, polydisperse and porous particles, with no biological impact detected; (4) at pH 6 and 7, such aggregates may moderate the damage associated with CO(2) enrichment as indicated by an increased prevalence of normal D-shell larvae when nano-Fe was present in the seawater at pH 7, while soluble iron benefited embryo development at pH 6, and (5) the observed effects of iron on pH-induced development toxicity were concentration dependent.
Alvarez-Guerra M, Canis L, Voulvoulis N, et al., 2010, Prioritization of sediment management alternatives using stochastic multicriteria acceptability analysis., Science of the Total Environment, Vol: 408, Pages: 4354-4367
Decision-making for sediment management is a complex task that requires the consideration of temporal and spatial impacts of several remedial alternatives as well as the associated economic, social and political impact. Multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) is becoming increasingly recognized as an important environmental management tool that can be used to support the selection of suitable remediation alternatives and prioritization of management units in space and time. This paper proposes an MCDA framework for prioritizing sediment management alternatives. This framework involves identifying of a set of feasible options, as well as defining and evaluating criteria which integrate relevant technical, economic, social and environmental aspects of remedies. The methodology allows an explicit consideration of uncertainty in criteria scores and weights by assigning probability distributions and analyzing subsequent Monte-Carlo simulations. The consideration of different stakeholder simulated values is used to assess the robustness of alternative rankings and to guide the selection of remediation options. An application of this methodology to a case study in the Bay of Santander, Spain, is presented. An assessment is conducted for the case of unknown preferences as well as for hypothetical preferences profiles for four types of stakeholders: Idealist, Politician, Environmentalist and Balanced. The results are used to visualize stakeholder positions and potential disagreements, allowing for the identification of a group of least preferred alternatives for each stakeholder. Stakeholder involvement has the potential to ease the remedy selection process during all stages of the decision-making process and to eventually remedy implementation.
Bone J, Head M, Barraclough D, et al., 2010, Soil quality assessment under emerging regulatory requirements., Environment International, Vol: 36, Pages: 609-622, ISSN: 0160-4120
New and emerging policies that aim to set standards for protection and sustainable use of soil are likely to require identification of geographical risk/priority areas. Soil degradation can be seen as the change or disturbance in soil quality and it is therefore crucial that soil and soil quality are well understood to protect soils and to meet legislative requirements. To increase this understanding a review of the soil quality definition evaluated its development, with a formal scientific approach to assessment beginning in the 1970s, followed by a period of discussion and refinement. A number of reservations about soil quality assessment expressed in the literature are summarised. Taking concerns into account, a definition of soil quality incorporating soil's ability to meet multifunctional requirements, to provide ecosystem services, and the potential for soils to affect other environmental media is described. Assessment using this definition requires a large number of soil function dependent indicators that can be expensive, laborious, prone to error, and problematic in comparison. Findings demonstrate the need for a method that is not function dependent, but uses a number of cross-functional indicators instead. This method to systematically prioritise areas where detailed investigation is required, using a ranking based against a desired level of action, could be relatively quick, easy and cost effective. As such this has potential to fill in gaps and compliment existing monitoring programs and assist in development and implementation of current and future soil protection legislation.
Donovan SM, Bateson T, Gronow JR, et al., 2010, Characterization of Compost-Like Outputs from Mechanical Biological Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol: 60, Pages: 694-701, ISSN: 1047-3289
Throughout the world, most municipal solid waste consists of biodegradable components. The most abundant biological component is cellulose, followed by hemicellulose and lignin. Recycling of these components is important for the carbon cycle. In an attempt to reduce the environmental impacts of biodegradable wastes, mechanical biological treatments (MBTs) are being used as a waste management process in many countries. MBT plants attempt to mechanically separate the biodegradable and nonbiodegradable components. The nonbiodegradable components are then sent for reprocessing or landfilled, whereas the biodegradable components are reduced in biological content through composting or anaerobic digestion, leaving a compost-like output (CLO). The further use of these partially degraded residues is uncertain, and in many cases it is likely that they will be landfilled. The implications of this for the future of landfill management are causing some concern because there is little evidence that the long-term emissions tail will be reduced. In this study, the CLOs from four different biological treatment processes were characterized for physical contamination through visual inspection and for biological content using a sequential digestion analysis. The results indicate that the composition of the incoming waste, dependent on the way the waste was collected/segregated, was the factor that influenced biological content most, with length of treatment process the second most important.
Donovan SM, Bateson T, Gronow JR, et al., 2010, Modelling the behaviour of mechanical biological treatment outputs in landfills using the GasSim model., Science of the Total Environment, Vol: 408, Pages: 1979-1984
The pretreatment of the biodegradable components of municipal solid waste (MSW) has been suggested as a method of reducing landfill gas emissions. Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) is the technology being developed to provide this reduction in biodegradability, either as an alternative to source segregated collection or for dealing with residual MSW which still contains high levels of biodegradable waste. The compost like outputs (CLOs) from MBT plants can be applied to land as a soil conditioner; treated to produce a solid recovered fuel (SRF) or landfilled. In this study the impact that landfilling of these CLOs will have on gaseous emissions is investigated. It is important that the gas production behaviour of landfilled waste is well understood, especially in European member states where the mitigation of gaseous emissions is a legal requirement. Results of an experiment carried out to characterise the biodegradable components of pretreated biowastes have been used with the GasSim model to predict the long term emissions behaviour of landfills accepting these wastes, in varying quantities. The landfill directive also enforces the mitigation of potential methane emissions from landfills, and the ability of landfill operators to capture gaseous emissions from low emitting landfills of the future is discussed, as well as new techniques that could be used for the mitigation of methane generation.
Rowsell VF, Tangney P, Hunt C, et al., 2010, Estimating Levels of Micropollutants in Municipal Wastewater, Water, Air and Soil Pollution, Vol: 206, Pages: 357-368, ISSN: 0049-6979
Exposure to micropollutants can pose a serious risk to both the environment and human health. Although sewage treatment works (STWs) aim to reduce levels of pollutants in municipal wastewater discharges, they have become a significant point source of dangerous substances to the aquatic environment. With increasing regulation on pollution prevention, it has become essential to assess STW source inputs in order to control pollutant discharge into the environment. This paper has therefore focussed on developing calculations to estimate micropollutant levels in STW influents. The analysis was carried out using information from published literature, the Water Industry, and monitored influent data. Results demonstrated that, where monitoring data were available for metals and organic pollutants, STW influent could be adequately estimated and validated, with accuracy between 77% and 100%. In addition, based on these calculations and using data for over 600 STWs in England, our analysis showed that compounds such as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, lead and linear alkylbenzenesulfonate could reach influent levels that could be challenging for conventional wastewater treatment removal.
Pan J, Plant JA, Voulvoulis N, et al., 2010, Cadmium levels in Europe: implications for human health., Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vol: 32, Pages: 1-12
In this study we used the Forum of European Geological Surveys geochemical baseline data to examine the distribution of cadmium (Cd) in Europe, with a particular reference to the international soil and water guideline values. The highest cadmium levels were found to occur in topsoil and to follow closely the distribution of P(2)O(5), suggesting that the contamination was from the use of rock phosphate fertilizer in intensive arable agriculture. In terms of human health impacts, food (up to several hundred microg/day) was found as the only major route of exposure to Cd for the non-smoking general population. It appeared that low levels of chronic exposure to Cd resulted in completely different human health impacts than those high levels that had caused the 'itai-itai' disease. Some correlations were suggested between cadmium levels and the age-adjusted prostate or breast cancer rates distributed in the European countries under study.
Chon HS, Ohandja D-G, Voulvoulis N, 2010, Implementation of E.U. Water Framework Directive: source assessment of metallic substances at catchment levels., Journal of Environmental Monitoring, Vol: 12, Pages: 36-47
The E.U. Water Framework Directive (WFD) aims to prevent deterioration of water quality and to phase out or reduce the concentrations of priority substances at catchment levels. It requires changes in water management from a local scale to a river basin scale, and establishes Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) as a guideline for the chemical status of receiving waters. According to the Directive, the standard and the scope of the investigation for water management are more stringent and expanded than in the past, and this change also needs to be applied to restoring the level of metals in water bodies. The aim of this study was to identify anthropogenic emission sources of metallic substances at catchment levels. Potential sources providing substantial amounts of such substances in receiving waters included stormwater, industrial effluents, treated effluents, agricultural drainage, sediments, mining drainage and landfill leachates. Metallic substances have more emission sources than other dangerous substances at catchment levels. Therefore, source assessment for these substances is required to be considered more significantly to restore their chemical status in the context of the WFD. To improve source assessment quality, research on the role of societal and environmental parameters and contribution of each source to the chemical distribution in receiving waters need to be carried out.
Ohandja D-G, Gove L, Edwards M, et al., 2010, Improving anaerobic digester performance: lessons learnt from digester clean-out operations, Water Practice and Technology, Vol: 5
Donovan SM, Pan J, Bateson T, et al., 2010, Gas Emissions from Biodegradable Waste in Landfill, Sanitary to Sustainable Landfill - why, how and when? 1st International Conference on Final Sinks, Vienna, Austria, 23 Sep 2010 - 25 Sep 2010
Ohandja D-G, Iacovidou E, Bajzelj B, et al., 2010, Co-digestion of organic wastes in the UK: where we are?, Third International Symposium on Energy from Biomass, Venice, Italy
Collins A, Chon HS, Voulvoulis N, 2010, WFD: surface water monitoring for the classifications of water bodies and to facilitate source assessment, M3 Workshop on Monitoring and Data Evaluation under the Water Framework Directive - Achievements, Defecits and New Horizons, Luxembourg-Kirchberg, 16 Jun 2010 - 17 Jun 2010
Templeton MR, Graham N, Voulvoulis N, 2009, Emerging chemical contaminants in water and wastewater INTRODUCTION, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol: 367, Pages: 3873-3875, ISSN: 1364-503X
Martin OV, Voulvoulis N, 2009, Sustainable risk management of emerging contaminants in municipal wastewaters., Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol: 367, Pages: 3895-3922, ISSN: 1364-503X
The presence of emerging contaminants in municipal wastewaters, particularly endocrine-disrupting compounds such as oestrogenic substances, has been the focus of much public concern and scientific attention in recent years. Due to the scientific uncertainty still surrounding their effects, the Precautionary Principle could be invoked for the interim management of potential risks. Therefore, precautionary prevention risk-management measures could be employed to reduce human exposure to the compounds of concern. Steroid oestrogens are generally recognized as the most significant oestrogenically active substances in domestic sewage effluent. As a result, the UK Environment Agency has championed a 'Demonstration Programme' to investigate the potential for removal of steroid oestrogens and alkylphenol ethoxylates during sewage treatment. Ecological and human health risks are interdependent, and ecological injuries may result in increased human exposures to contaminants or other stressors. In this context of limiting exposure to potential contaminants, examining the relative contribution of various compounds and pathways should be taken into account when identifying effective risk-management measures. In addition, the explicit use of ecological objectives within the scope of the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive poses new challenges and necessitates the development of ecosystem-based decision tools. This paper addresses some of these issues and proposes a species sensitivity distribution approach to support the decision-making process related to the need and implications of sewage treatment work upgrade as risk-management measures to the presence of oestrogenic compounds in sewage effluent.
Alvarez-Guerra M, Viguri JR, Voulvoulis N, 2009, A multicriteria-based methodology for site prioritisation in sediment management., Environment International, Vol: 35, Pages: 920-930
Decision-making for sediment management is a complex task that incorporates the selections of areas for remediation and the assessment of options for any mitigation required. The application of Multicriteria Analysis (MCA) to rank different areas, according to their need for sediment management, provides a great opportunity for prioritisation, a first step in an integrated methodology that finally aims to assess and select suitable alternatives for managing the identified priority sites. This paper develops a methodology that starts with the delimitation of management units within areas of study, followed by the application of MCA methods that allows ranking of these management units, according to their need for remediation. This proposed process considers not only scientific evidence on sediment quality, but also other relevant aspects such as social and economic criteria associated with such decisions. This methodology is illustrated with its application to the case study area of the Bay of Santander, in northern Spain, highlighting some of the implications of utilising different MCA methods in the process. It also uses site-specific data to assess the subjectivity in the decision-making process, mainly reflected through the assignment of the criteria weights and uncertainties in the criteria scores. Analysis of the sensitivity of the results to these factors is used as a way to assess the stability and robustness of the ranking as a first step of the sediment management decision-making process.
Rowsell VF, Pang DS, Tsafou F, et al., 2009, Removal of steroid estrogens from wastewater using granular activated carbon: comparison between virgin and reactivated carbon., Water Environment Research, Vol: 81, Pages: 394-400, ISSN: 1061-4303
This research was set up in response to new European legislation to identify cost-effective treatment for removal of steroid estrogens from effluent. This study aimed to compare estrogen removal of two types of granular activated carbon: virgin (F400) and reactivated (C401) carbon. Rapid, small-scale column tests were conducted with a total bed volume of 24.9 cm3 over three columns, and analysis was carried out using high-performance liquid chromatography. Results demonstrated that C401 performed more efficiently with greater than or equal to 81% estrogen removal in wastewater compared to F400 which produced greater than or equal to 65% estrogen removal. Estrogen removal can be affected by competitive adsorption from natural organic matter present in wastewater. In addition, the physical properties of each carbon had the potential to influence adsorption differently, thus resulting in the observed varied adsorption capability of the two carbons.
Slack RJ, Gronow JR, Voulvoulis N, 2009, The management of household hazardous waste in the United Kingdom., Journal of Environmental Management, Vol: 90, Pages: 36-42, ISSN: 0301-4797
Waste legislation in the United Kingdom (UK) implements European Union (EU) Directives and Regulations. However, the term used to refer to hazardous waste generated in household or municipal situations, household hazardous waste (HHW), does not occur in UK, or EU, legislation. The EU's Hazardous Waste Directive and European Waste Catalogue are the principal legislation influencing HHW, although the waste categories described are difficult to interpret. Other legislation also have impacts on HHW definition and disposal, some of which will alter current HHW disposal practices, leading to a variety of potential consequences. This paper discusses the issues affecting the management of HHW in the UK, including the apparent absence of a HHW-specific regulatory structure. Policy and regulatory measures that influence HHW management before disposal and after disposal are considered, with particular emphasis placed on disposal to landfill.
Ohandja D-G, Kimber R, Gronow J, et al., 2009, The Environmental Impact of Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Commercial Food Waste and Sewage Sludge, Twelfth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Sardinia, Italy, 05 Oct 2009 - 09 Oct 2009
Donovan S, Bateson T, Gronow J, et al., 2009, Modeling the greenhouse gas emissions of biologically pretreated waste in landfill, Twelfth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
Martin OV, Boobis AR, Voulvoulis N, 2009, Evaluating the ecological benefits of removing mixtures of dangerous substances from sewage effluent using Species Sensitivity Distributions: proof-of-concept study with estrogenic substances, Platform presentation at SETAC Europe 19th Annual Meeting, Gothenburg, Sweden, 30 May 2009 - 04 Jun 2009
Martin OV, Shialis T, Lester JN, et al., 2008, Testicular dysgenesis syndrome and the estrogen hypothesis: a quantitative meta-analysis, Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol: 116, Pages: 149-157, ISSN: 1552-9924
Singer AC, Howard BM, Johnson AC, et al., 2008, Meeting report: risk assessment of tamiflu use under pandemic conditions., Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol: 116, Pages: 1563-1567, ISSN: 0091-6765
On 3 October 2007, 40 participants with diverse expertise attended the workshop Tamiflu and the Environment: Implications of Use under Pandemic Conditions to assess the potential human health impact and environmental hazards associated with use of Tamiflu during an influenza pandemic. Based on the identification and risk-ranking of knowledge gaps, the consensus was that oseltamivir ethylester-phosphate (OE-P) and oseltamivir carboxylate (OC) were unlikely to pose an ecotoxicologic hazard to freshwater organisms. OC in river water might hasten the generation of OC-resistance in wildfowl, but this possibility seems less likely than the potential disruption that could be posed by OC and other pharmaceuticals to the operation of sewage treatment plants. The work-group members agreed on the following research priorities: a) available data on the ecotoxicology of OE-P and OC should be published; b) risk should be assessed for OC-contaminated river water generating OC-resistant viruses in wildfowl; c) sewage treatment plant functioning due to microbial inhibition by neuraminidase inhibitors and other antimicrobials used during a pandemic should be investigated; and d) realistic worst-case exposure scenarios should be developed. Additional modeling would be useful to identify localized areas within river catchments that might be prone to high pharmaceutical concentrations in sewage treatment plant effluent. Ongoing seasonal use of Tamiflu in Japan offers opportunities for researchers to assess how much OC enters and persists in the aquatic environment.
Martin O, Shialis T, Lester J, et al., 2008, Testicular dysgenesis syndrome and the estrogen hypothesis: a quantitative meta-analysis., Cien Saude Colet, Vol: 13, Pages: 1601-1618
Male reproductive tract abnormalities such as hypospadias and cryptorchidism, and testicular cancer have been proposed to comprise a common syndrome together with impaired spermatogenesis with a common etiology resulting from the disruption of gonadal development during fetal life, the testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS). The only quantitative summary estimate of the link between prenatal exposure to estrogenic agents and testicular cancer was published over 10 years ago; other reviews of the link between estrogenic compounds, other than the potent pharmaceutical estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES), and TDS end points have remained inconclusive. We conducted a quantitative meta-analysis of the association between the end points related to TDS and prenatal exposure to estrogenic agents. Inclusion in this analysis was based on mechanistic criteria, and the plausibility of an estrogen receptor (ER)-alpha-mediated mode of action was specifically explored. Eight studies were included, investigating the etiology of hypospadias and/or cryptorchidism that had not been identified in previous systematic reviews. Four additional studies of pharmaceutical estrogens yielded a statistically significant updated summary estimate for testicular cancer. Results of the subset analyses point to the existence of unidentified sources of heterogeneity between studies or within the study population.
Martin OV, Shialis T, Boobis AR, et al., 2008, Defective spermatogenesis: martin et Al. Respond., Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol: 116, Pages: A332-A332, ISSN: 0091-6765
McKinlay R, Plant JA, Bell JNB, et al., 2008, Calculating human exposure to endocrine disrupting pesticides via agricultural and non-agricultural exposure routes, Science of the Total Environment, Vol: 398, Pages: 1-12, ISSN: 0048-9697
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) are of increasing concern because of their potential impacts on the environment, wildlife and human health. Pesticides and some pesticide metabolites are an important group of EDC, and exposure to them is a poorly quantified source of human and environmental exposure to such chemicals generally. Models for estimating human exposure to Endocrine Disrupting (ED) pesticides are an important risk management tool. Probabilistic models are now being used in addition to deterministic ones in all areas of risk assessment. These can provide more realistic exposure estimates, because they are better able to deal with variation and uncertainty more effectively and better inform risk management decisions. Deterministic models are still used and are of great value where exposure data are scarce. Models or groups of models that provide holistic human ED pesticide exposure estimates are required if the risk posed to humans by ED pesticides is to be better assessed. Much more research is needed to quantify different exposure routes such as exposure from agricultural spray drift and the medical use of pesticides to develop such models. Most available probabilistic models of human exposure were developed in the USA and require modification for use elsewhere. In particular, datasets equivalent to those used to create and apply the American models are required. This paper examines the known routes of human pesticide exposure with particular reference to ED pesticides and their quantification as unlike pesticides generally, many ED pesticides are harmful at very low doses, especially if exposure occurs during sensitive stages of development, producing effects that may not manifest for many years or that affect descendants via epigenetic changes. It also summarises available deterministic and probabilistic models commonly used to calculate human exposure. The main requirement if such models are to be used in the UK is more quantitative data on the so
McKinlay R, Plant JA, Bell JNB, et al., 2008, Endocrine disrupting pesticides: implications for risk assessment, Environment International, Vol: 34, Pages: 168-183, ISSN: 0160-4120
Endocrine disrupting (ED) chemicals are compounds that alter the normal functioning of the endocrine system, potentially causing disease or deformity in organisms and their offspring. Pesticides are used widely to kill unwanted organisms in crops, public areas, homes and gardens and medicinally to kill parasites. Many are proven or suspected to be EDs. Ancient physiological similarities between different vertebrate groups suggest that disorders observed in wildlife may indicate risks to humans. This makes accurate risk assessment and effective legislation difficult. In this paper, the hazardous properties of pesticides which are known to have ED properties are reviewed in order to assess the implications for risk assessment. As well as data on sources of exposure in the United Kingdom (UK) an assessment of the evidence on the health effects of ED pesticides is also included. In total, 127 have been identified from the literature and their effects and modes of action are listed in this paper. Using the UK as a case study, the types and quantities of pesticides used, and their methods of application are assessed, along with their potential pathways to humans. In the UK reliable data are available only for agricultural use, so non-agricultural routes of pesticide exposure have been poorly quantified. The exposure of people resident in or visiting rural areas could also have been grossly under-estimated. Material links between ED pesticide use and specific illnesses or deformities are complicated by the multifactorial nature of disease, which can be affected by factors such as diet. Despite these difficulties, a large body of evidence has accumulated linking specific conditions to ED pesticides in wildlife and humans. A more precautionary approach to the use of ED pesticides, especially for non-essential purposes is proposed. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All fights reserved.
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