Publications
98 results found
Funke SW, Kramer SC, Piggott MD, 2016, Design optimisation and resource assessment for tidal-stream renewable energy farms using a new continuous turbine approach, Renewable Energy, ISSN: 1879-0682
This paper presents a new approach for optimising the design of tidal stream turbine farms. In this approach, the turbine farm is represented by a turbine density function that specifies the number of turbines per unit area and an associated continuous locally-enhanced bottom friction field. The farm design question is formulated as a mathematical optimisation problem constrained by the shallow water equations and solved with efficient, gradient-based optimisation methods. The resulting method is accurate, computationally efficient, allows complex installation constraints, and supports different goal quantities such as to maximise power or profit. The outputs of the optimisation are the optimal number of turbines, their location within the farm, the overall farm profit, the farm's power extraction, and the installation cost.We demonstrate the capabilities of the method on a validated numerical model of the Pentland Firth, Scotland. We optimise the design of four tidal farms simultaneously, as well as individually, and study how farms in close proximity may impact upon one another.
Kramer SC, Piggott MD, 2016, A correction to the enhanced bottom drag parameterisation of tidal turbines, Renewable Energy, Vol: 92, Pages: 385-396, ISSN: 0960-1481
Hydrodynamic modelling is an important tool for the development of tidal stream energy projects. Many hydrodynamic models incorporate the effect of tidal turbines through an enhanced bottom drag. In this paper we show that although for coarse grid resolutions (kilometre scale) the resulting force exerted on the flow agrees well with the theoretical value, the force starts decreasing with decreasing grid sizes when these become smaller than the length scale of the wake recovery. This is because the assumption that the upstream velocity can be approximated by the local model velocity, is no longer valid. Using linear momentum actuator disc theory however, we derive a relationship between these two velocities and formulate a correction to the enhanced bottom drag formulation that consistently applies a force that remains close to the theoretical value, for all grid sizes down to the turbine scale. In addition, a better understanding of the relation between the model, upstream, and actual turbine velocity, as predicted by actuator disc theory, leads to an improved estimate of the usefully extractable energy. We show how the corrections can be applied (demonstrated here for the models MIKE 21 and Fluidity) by a simple modification of the drag coefficient.
Jacobs CT, Piggott MD, Kramer SC, et al., 2016, On the validity of tidal turbine array configurations obtained from steady-state adjoint optimisation, VII European Congress on Computational Methods in Applied Sciences and Engineering, Publisher: ECCOMAS Proceedia, Pages: 8247-8261
Extracting the optimal amount of power from an array of tidal turbines requires an intricate understanding of tidal dynamics and the effects of turbine placement on the local and regional scale flow. Numerical models have contributed significantly towards this understanding, and more recently, adjoint-based modelling has been employed to optimise the positioning of the turbines in an array in an automated way and improve on simple man-made configurations (e.g. structured grids of turbines) [1]. Adjoint-based optimisation of high-resolution and ideally 3D transient models is generally a very computationally expensive problem. Multiple approaches are therefore used in practice to obtain feasible runtimes: using high viscosity values to obtain a steady-state solution, or a sequence of steady-state solutions for "time-varying" setups; limiting the number of adjoint computations; or reformulating the problem to allow for coarser mesh resolution to make it feasible for resources assessment (e.g. [2] , [3]). However, such compromises may affect the reliability of the modelled turbines, their wakes and interactions, and thus bring into question the validity of the computed optimal turbine positions. This work considers a suite of idealised simulations of flow past tidal turbine arrays in a two-dimensional channel. It compares four regular array configurations, detailed by Divett et al. [4] , with the configuration found through adjoint optimisation in a steady-state, high-viscosity setup. The optimised configuration produces considerably more power than the other configurations (approximately 40% more than the best man-made configuration). The same configurations are then used to produce a suite of transient simulations that do not use constant high-viscosity, and instead use large eddy simulation (LES) to parameterise the resulting turbulent structures. All simulations are performed using OpenTidalFarm [1]. It is shown that the 'low background viscosity'/LES simu
Smith R, Hill J, Collins GS, et al., 2016, Comparing approaches for numerical modelling of tsunami generation by deformable submarine slides, Ocean Modelling, Vol: 100, Pages: 125-140, ISSN: 1463-5003
Tsunami generated by submarine slides are arguably an under-consideredrisk in comparison to earthquake-generated tsunami. Numerical simulationsof submarine slide-generated waves can be used to identify the important factorsin determining wave characteristics. Here we use Fluidity, an open sourcefinite element code, to simulate waves generated by deformable submarineslides. Fluidity uses flexible unstructured meshes combined with adaptivitywhich alters the mesh topology and resolution based on the simulationstate, focussing or reducing resolution, when and where it is required. Fluidityalso allows a number of different numerical approaches to be taken tosimulate submarine slide deformation, free-surface representation, and wavegeneration within the same numerical framework. In this work we use amulti-material approach, considering either two materials (slide and waterwith a free surface) or three materials (slide, water and air), as well as asediment model (sediment, water and free surface) approach. In all casesthe slide is treated as a viscous fluid. Our results are shown to be consistentwith laboratory experiments using a deformable submarine slide, anddemonstrate good agreement when compared with other numerical models.The three different approaches for simulating submarine slide dynamics andtsunami wave generation produce similar waveforms and slide deformationgeometries. However, each has its own merits depending on the application.Mesh adaptivity is shown to be able to reduce the computational cost withoutcompromising the accuracy of results.
Vire A, Spinneken J, Piggott MD, et al., 2016, Application of the immersed-body method to simulatewave–structure interactions, European Journal of Mechanics B: Fluids, Vol: 55, Pages: 330-339, ISSN: 1873-7390
This study aims at demonstrating the capability of the immersed-body method to simulate wave–structure interactions using a non-linear finite-element model. In this approach, the Navier–Stokes equations are solved on an extended mesh covering the whole computational domain (i.e. fluids and structure). The structure is identified on the extended mesh through a nonzero solid-concentration field, which is obtained by conservatively mapping the mesh discretising the structure onto the extended mesh. A penalty term relaxes the fluid and structural velocities to one another in the regions covered by the structure. The paper is novel in that it combines the immersed-body method with wave modelling and mesh adaptivity. The focus of the paper is therefore on demonstrating the capability of this new methodology in reproducing well-established test cases, rather than investigating new physical phenomena in wave–structure interactions. Two cases are considered for a bottom-mounted pile. First, the pile is placed in a numerical wave tank, where propagating waves are modelled through a free-surface boundary condition. For regular and irregular waves, it is shown that the wave dynamics are accurately modelled by the computational fluid dynamics model and only small discrepancies are observed in the close vicinity of the structure. Second, the structure is subjected to a dam-break wave impact obtained by removing a barrier between air and water. In that case, an additional advection equation is solved for a fluid-concentration field that tracks the evolution of the air–water interface. It is shown that the load associated with the wave impact on the structure compares well with existing numerical and experimental data.
Davies DR, LeVoci G, Goes S, et al., 2016, The Mantle Wedge's Transient 3-D Flow Regime and Thermal Structure, Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, Vol: 17, Pages: 78-100, ISSN: 1525-2027
Arc volcanism, volatile cycling, mineralization, and continental crust formation are likely regulated by the mantle wedge's flow regime and thermal structure. Wedge flow is often assumed to follow a regular corner-flow pattern. However, studies that incorporate a hydrated rheology and thermal buoyancy predict internal small-scale-convection (SSC). Here, we systematically explore mantle-wedge dynamics in 3-D simulations. We find that longitudinal “Richter-rolls” of SSC (with trench-perpendicular axes) commonly occur if wedge hydration reduces viscosities to inline image Pa s, although transient transverse rolls (with trench-parallel axes) can dominate at viscosities of inline image Pa s. Rolls below the arc and back arc differ. Subarc rolls have similar trench-parallel and trench-perpendicular dimensions of 100–150 km and evolve on a 1–5 Myr time-scale. Subback-arc instabilities, on the other hand, coalesce into elongated sheets, usually with a preferential trench-perpendicular alignment, display a wavelength of 150–400 km and vary on a 5–10 Myr time scale. The modulating influence of subback-arc ridges on the subarc system increases with stronger wedge hydration, higher subduction velocity, and thicker upper plates. We find that trench-parallel averages of wedge velocities and temperature are consistent with those predicted in 2-D models. However, lithospheric thinning through SSC is somewhat enhanced in 3-D, thus expanding hydrous melting regions and shifting dehydration boundaries. Subarc Richter-rolls generate time-dependent trench-parallel temperature variations of up to inline image K, which exceed the transient 50–100 K variations predicted in 2-D and may contribute to arc-volcano spacing and the variable seismic velocity structures imaged beneath some arcs.
Jones TD, Davies DR, Campbell IH, et al., 2015, Do Mantle Plumes Preserve the Heterogeneous Structure of their Deep-Mantle Source?, Earth and Planetary Science Letters
Funke SW, Kramer SC, Piggott MD, 2015, Design optimisation and resource assessment for tidal-stream renewable energy farms using a new continuous turbine approach
This paper presents a new approach for optimising the design of tidal streamturbine farms. In this approach, the turbine farm is represented by a turbinedensity function that specifies the number of turbines per unit area and anassociated continuous locally-enhanced bottom friction field. The farm designquestion is formulated as a mathematical optimisation problem constrained bythe shallow water equations and solved with efficient, gradient-basedoptimisation methods. The resulting method is accurate, computationallyefficient, allows complex installation constraints, and supports different goalquantities such as to maximise power or profit. The outputs of the optimisationare the optimal number of turbines, their location within the farm, the overallfarm profit, the farm's power extraction, and the installation cost. Wedemonstrate the capabilities of the method on a validated numerical model ofthe Pentland Firth, Scotland. We optimise the design of four tidal farmssimultaneously, as well as individually, and study how farms in close proximitymay impact upon one another.
Tosi N, Stein C, Noack L, et al., 2015, A community benchmark for viscoplastic thermal convection in a 2-D square box, GEOCHEMISTRY GEOPHYSICS GEOSYSTEMS, Vol: 16, Pages: 2175-2196, ISSN: 1525-2027
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- Citations: 39
Culley DM, Funke SW, Kramer SC, et al., 2015, Integration of cost modelling within the micro-siting design optimisation of tidal turbine arrays, Renewable Energy, Vol: 85, Pages: 215-227, ISSN: 1879-0682
The location of individual turbines within a tidal current turbine array – micro-siting – can have a significant impact on the power that the array may extract from the flow. Due to the infancy of the industry and the challenges of exploiting the resource, the economic costs of realising industrial scale tidal current energy projects are significant and should be considered as one of the key drivers of array design. This paper proposes a framework for the automated design of tidal current turbine arrays in which costs over the lifespan of the array may be modelled and considered as part of the design optimisation process. To demonstrate this approach, the cost of sub-sea cabling is incorporated by implementing a cable-routing algorithm alongside an existing gradient-based array optimisation algorithm. Three idealised test scenarios are used to demonstrate the effects of a financial-return optimising design approach as contrasted with a power maximisation approach.
Kramer SC, Gritzki R, Perschk A, et al., 2015, Fully parallel, OpenGL-based computation of obstructed area-to-area view factors, JOURNAL OF BUILDING PERFORMANCE SIMULATION, Vol: 8, Pages: 266-281, ISSN: 1940-1493
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- Citations: 4
Martin-Short R, Hill J, Kramer SC, et al., 2015, Tidal resource extraction in the Pentland Firth, UK: potential impacts on flow regime and sediment transport in the Inner Sound of Stroma, Renewable Energy, Vol: 76, Pages: 596-607, ISSN: 0960-1481
Large-scale extraction of power from tidal streams within the Pentland Firth is expected to be underway in the near future. The Inner Sound of Stroma in particular has attracted significant commercial interest. To understand potential environmental impacts of the installation of a tidal turbine array a case study based upon the Inner Sound is considered. A numerical computational fluid dynamics model, Fluidity, is used to conduct a series of depth-averaged simulations to investigate velocity and bed shear stress changes due to the presence of idealised tidal turbine arrays. The number of turbines is increased from zero to 400. It is found that arrays in excess of 85 turbines have the potential to affect bed shear stress distributions in such a way that the most favourable sites for sediment accumulation migrate from the edges of the Inner Sound towards its centre. Deposits of fine gravel and coarse sand are indicated to occur within arrays of greater than 240 turbines with removal of existing deposits in the shallower channel margins also possible. The effects of the turbine array may be seen several kilometres from the site which has implications not only on sediment accumulation, but also on the benthic fauna.
Jacobs CT, Goldin TJ, Collins GS, et al., 2015, An improved quantitative measure of the tendency for volcanic ash plumes to form in water: implications for the deposition of marine ash beds, JOURNAL OF VOLCANOLOGY AND GEOTHERMAL RESEARCH, Vol: 290, Pages: 114-124, ISSN: 0377-0273
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- Citations: 9
Kramer SC, Lube G, 2015, Finite element-boundary element methods for dielectric relaxation spectroscopy, Lecture Notes in Computational Science and Engineering, Vol: 103, Pages: 47-56, ISSN: 1439-7358
We apply the finite element-boundary element method (FEM-BEM) for a smooth approximation of a curvilinear interior interface in a finite domain. This avoids unphysical singularities at the interface due to a piece-wise linear boundary. This type of FEM-BEMcoupling arises from simulating the biophysical problem of dielectric relaxation spectroscopy of solvated proteins. Boundary elements convert the linear Poisson problem due to the intramolecular charges of the protein into a boundary condition at the protein-solvent interface. The electro-diffusion of ions in the solvent is modeled as a set of convection-diffusion equations. The spatial distributions of the ion species induce an electrostatic potential which solves a Poisson problem. The gradient of the potential constitutes the convective flow field. The link to experiments is given by computing the stationary ionic current through the system. This requires Robin-type boundary conditions at the electrodes.
Kramer SC, Hagemann J, 2015, SciPAL: Expression templates and composition closure objects for high performance computational physics with CUDA and openMP, ACM Transactions on Parallel Computing, Vol: 1, ISSN: 2329-4949
We present SciPAL (scientific parallel algorithms library), a C++-based, hardware-independent open-source library. Its core is a domain-specific embedded language for numerical linear algebra. The main fields of application are finite element simulations, coherent optics and the solution of inverse problems. Using Sci- PAL, algorithms can be stated in a mathematically intuitive way in terms of matrix and vector operations. Existing algorithms can easily be adapted to GPU-based computing by proper template specialization. Our library is compatible with the finite element library deal.II and provides a port of deal.II's most frequently used linear algebra classes to CUDA (NVidia's extension of the programming languages C and C++ for programming their GPUs). SciPAL's operator-based API for BLAS operations particularly aims at simplifying the usage of NVidia's CUBLAS. For non-BLAS array arithmetic SciPAL's expression templates are able to generate CUDA kernels at compile time.We demonstrate the benefits of SciPAL using the iterative principal component analysis as example which is the core algorithm for the spike-sorting problem in neuroscience.
Kramer SC, Lube G, 2015, Finite element-boundary element methods for dielectric relaxation spectroscopy, Lecture Notes in Computational Science and Engineering, Vol: 103, Pages: 47-56, ISSN: 1439-7358
We apply the finite element-boundary element method (FEM-BEM) for a smooth approximation of a curvilinear interior interface in a finite domain. This avoids unphysical singularities at the interface due to a piece-wise linear boundary. This type of FEM-BEMcoupling arises from simulating the biophysical problem of dielectric relaxation spectroscopy of solvated proteins. Boundary elements convert the linear Poisson problem due to the intramolecular charges of the protein into a boundary condition at the protein-solvent interface. The electro-diffusion of ions in the solvent is modeled as a set of convection-diffusion equations. The spatial distributions of the ion species induce an electrostatic potential which solves a Poisson problem. The gradient of the potential constitutes the convective flow field. The link to experiments is given by computing the stationary ionic current through the system. This requires Robin-type boundary conditions at the electrodes.
de Vries AHB, Cook NP, Kramer S, et al., 2015, Generation 3 programmable array microscope (PAM) for high speed, large format optical sectioning in fluorescence, Conference on Emerging Digital Micromirror Device Based Systems and Applications VII, Publisher: SPIE-INT SOC OPTICAL ENGINEERING, ISSN: 0277-786X
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- Citations: 1
Hill J, Collins GS, Avdis A, et al., 2014, How does multiscale modelling and inclusion of realistic palaeobathymetry affect numerical simulation of the Storegga Slide tsunami?, Ocean Modelling, Vol: 83, Pages: 11-25, ISSN: 1463-5003
The ∼8.15 ka Storegga submarine slide was a large (∼3000 km3), tsunamigenic slide off the coast of Norway. The resulting tsunami had run-up heights of around 10–20 m on the Norwegian coast, over 12 m in Shetland, 3–6 m on the Scottish mainland coast and reached as far as Greenland. Accurate numerical simulations of Storegga require high spatial resolution near the coasts, particularly near tsunami run-up observations, and also in the slide region. However, as the computational domain must span the whole of the Norwegian-Greenland sea, employing uniformly high spatial resolution is computationally prohibitive. To overcome this problem, we present a multiscale numerical model of the Storegga slide-generated tsunami where spatial resolution varies from 500 m to 50 km across the entire Norwegian-Greenland sea domain to optimally resolve the slide region, important coastlines and bathymetric changes. We compare results from our multiscale model to previous results using constant-resolution models and show that accounting for changes in bathymetry since 8.15 ka, neglected in previous numerical studies of the Storegga slide-tsunami, improves the agreement between the model and inferred run-up heights in specific locations, especially in the Shetlands, where maximum run-up height increased from 8 m (modern bathymetry) to 13 m (palaeobathymetry). By tracking the Storegga tsunami as far south as the southern North sea, we also found that wave heights were high enough to inundate Doggerland, an island in the southern North Sea prior to sea level rise over the last 8 ka.
Garel F, Goes S, Davies DR, et al., 2014, Interaction of subducted slabs with the mantle transition-zone: A regime diagram from 2-D thermo-mechanical models with a mobile trench and an overriding plate, GEOCHEMISTRY GEOPHYSICS GEOSYSTEMS, Vol: 15, Pages: 1739-1765
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- Citations: 132
Le Voci G, Davies DR, Goes S, et al., 2014, A systematic 2-D investigation into the mantle wedge's transient flow regime and thermal structure: Complexities arising from a hydrated rheology and thermal buoyancy, GEOCHEMISTRY GEOPHYSICS GEOSYSTEMS, Vol: 15, Pages: 28-51, ISSN: 1525-2027
Jacobs CT, Collins GS, Piggott MD, et al., 2014, MULTIPHASE FLOW MODELLING OF EXPLOSIVE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS USING AN ADAPTIVE UNSTRUCTURED MESH-BASED APPROACH, 11th World Congress on Computational Mechanics (WCCM) / 5th European Conference on Computational Mechanics (ECCM) / 6th European Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics (ECFD), Publisher: INT CENTER NUMERICAL METHODS ENGINEERING, Pages: 7406-7417
Vire A, Spinneken J, Piggott MD, et al., 2014, MODELLING OF WAVES AND WAVE-STRUCTURE INTERACTIONS USING NON-LINEAR NUMERICAL MODELS, 11th World Congress on Computational Mechanics (WCCM) / 5th European Conference on Computational Mechanics (ECCM) / 6th European Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics (ECFD), Publisher: INT CENTER NUMERICAL METHODS ENGINEERING, Pages: 2138-2148
Kramer S, 2013, Finite-element methods for spatially resolved mesoscopic electron transport, Physical Review B - Condensed Matter and Materials Physics, Vol: 88, ISSN: 1098-0121
A finite-element method is presented for calculating the quantum conductance of mesoscopic two-dimensional electron devices of complex geometry attached to semi-infinite leads. For computational purposes, the leads must be cut off at some finite length. To avoid spurious, unphysical reflections, this is modeled by transparent boundary conditions. We introduce the Hardy space infinite-element technique from acoustic scattering as a way of setting up transparent boundary conditions for transport computations spanning the range from the quantum mechanical to the quasiclassical regime. These boundary conditions are exact even for wave packets and thus are especially useful in the limit of high energies with many excited modes. Yet, they possess a memory-friendly sparse matrix representation. In addition to unbounded domains, Hardy space elements allow us to truncate those parts of the computational domain which are irrelevant for the calculation of the transport properties. Thus, the computation can be done only on the region that is essential for a physically meaningful simulation of the scattering states. The benefits of the method are demonstrated by three examples. The convergence properties are tested on the transport through a quasi-one-dimensional quantum wire. It is shown that higher-order finite elements considerably improve current conservation and establish the correct phase shift between the real and the imaginary parts of the electron wave function. The Aharonov-Bohm effect demonstrates that characteristic features of quantum interference can be assessed. A simulation of electron magnetic focusing exemplifies the capability of the computational framework to study the crossover from quantum to quasiclassical behavior. © 2013 American Physical Society.
Oishi Y, Piggott MD, Maeda T, et al., 2013, Three-dimensional tsunami propagation simulations using an unstructured mesh finite element model, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, Vol: 118, Pages: 2998-3018, ISSN: 2169-9313
Jacobs CT, Collins GS, Piggott MD, et al., 2013, Multiphase flow modelling of volcanic ash particle settling in water using adaptive unstructured meshes, Geophysical Journal International, Vol: 192, Pages: 647-665
Small-scale experiments of volcanic ash particle settling in water have demonstrated that ash particles can either settle slowly and individually, or rapidly and collectively as a gravitationally unstable ash-laden plume. This has important implications for the emplacement of tephra deposits on the seabed. Numerical modelling has the potential to extend the results of laboratory experiments to larger scales and explore the conditions under which plumes may form and persist, but many existing models are computationally restricted by the fixed mesh approaches that they employ. In contrast, this paper presents a new multiphase flow model that uses an adaptive unstructured mesh approach. As a simulation progresses, the mesh is optimized to focus numerical resolution in areas important to the dynamics and decrease it where it is not needed, thereby potentially reducing computational requirements. Model verification is performed using the method of manufactured solutions, which shows the correct solution convergence rates. Model validation and application considers 2-D simulations of plume formation in a water tank which replicate published laboratory experiments. The numerically predicted settling velocities for both individual particles and plumes, as well as instability behaviour, agree well with experimental data and observations. Plume settling is clearly hindered by the presence of a salinity gradient, and its influence must therefore be taken into account when considering particles in bodies of saline water. Furthermore, individual particles settle in the laminar flow regime while plume settling is shown (by plume Reynolds numbers greater than unity) to be in the turbulent flow regime, which has a significant impact on entrainment and settling rates. Mesh adaptivity maintains solution accuracy while providing a substantial reduction in computational requirements when compared to the same simulation performed using a fixed mesh, highlighting the benefits of an adapt
Spinneken J, Heller V, Kramer S, et al., 2012, Assessment of an Advanced Finite Element Tool for the Simulation of Fully-nonlinear Gravity Water Waves, The 22nd International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference
The aim of the present study is to provide a rigorous analysis of the water wave modelling capabilities of the advanced multipurpose CFD code Fluidity. This code has been developed atImperial College London over a large number of years and benefits from an open source GNU license. In contrast to similar studies adopting closed-source in-house or commercial solutions,the results presented herein may be verified by any computer literate reader. The investigation focuses on the simulation of gravity water waves; their detailed understanding being fundamental to the design of many offshore (marine) solutions, including the emerging fields of wave energy conversion and floatingoffshore wind applications. Both small amplitude (linear hydrodynamics) and finite amplitude (nonlinear hydrodynamics) regular waves are simulated in a 2D Numerical Wave Tank (NWT). First, and assessment of the NWT’s capabilities in accurately modelling wave propagation and wave energy conservation of linear waves is undertaken. Subsequently, the simulated wave field is directly compared with results obtained from linear wavemaker theory. For the purpose of the nonlinear wave investigation, two wave generation techniques are adopted, and comparisons with a high-order potential flow theory are made. The overall agreement between the simulation results and theory was found to be very good.
Kramer SC, Wilson CR, Davies DR, 2012, An implicit free surface algorithm for geodynamical simulations, PHYSICS OF THE EARTH AND PLANETARY INTERIORS, Vol: 194, Pages: 25-37, ISSN: 0031-9201
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- Citations: 48
Brito-Parada PR, Kramer SC, Wilson CR, et al., 2012, A finite element formulation to model the flow of flotation foams
Davies DR, Wilson CR, Kramer SC, 2011, Fluidity: A fully unstructured anisotropic adaptive mesh computational modeling framework for geodynamics, GEOCHEMISTRY GEOPHYSICS GEOSYSTEMS, Vol: 12
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- Citations: 88
Nelson R, Piggott M, Wilson C, et al., 2011, Compressible Flows on Adaptive and Unstructured Meshes with FLUIDITY, 6th International Conference on Fluid Mechanics, Publisher: AMER INST PHYSICS, ISSN: 0094-243X
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