Publications
132 results found
Putignano C, Reddyhoff T, Dini D, et al., 2013, Viscoelastic contact mechanics: Numerical simulations with experimental validation, Pages: 1511-1514
Leong JY, Reddyhoff T, Sinha SK, et al., 2013, Hydrodynamic Friction Reduction in a MAC-Hexadecane Lubricated MEMS Contact, TRIBOLOGY LETTERS, Vol: 49, Pages: 217-225, ISSN: 1023-8883
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Putignano D, 2013, Experimental investigation of viscoelastic rolling contacts: A comparison with theory, Tribology Letters, Vol: 51, Pages: 105-113
Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, Wayte R, et al., 2012, Lubrication of microelectromechanical devices using liquids of different viscosities, Journal of Tribology, Vol: 134, ISSN: 0742-4787
Lubrication of contacting and sliding surfaces in MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) is particularly challenging because of the predominance of surface forces at the microscale. The current paper explores the possibility of using liquid lubrication in this application. Measurements of friction and lubricant film thickness have been made for liquid lubricants of different viscosities, including low viscosity silicone oil, hexadecane, squalane, and water. Testing was carried out using a newly developed MEMS tribometer in which a rotating silicon disk is loaded against a stationary silicon disk. Two different test setups were used: one where both disks are flat, and the other where the stationary disk is structured as in a thrust pad bearing. In all tests the disks were fully submerged in the lubricant. With the flat-on-patterned disk combination, the variation of friction with rotation speed was found to follow classical Stribeck curves for all the lubricants tested. The friction at high speeds also decreased with increasing normal load, in accordance with hydrodynamic lubrication theory. For the least viscous lubricants, it was found that the hydrodynamic friction coefficients remained relatively low even at higher speeds. In particular, for water the friction coefficient for water was around 0.1 at 10,000 rpm. However, boundary friction was found to be unacceptably high at low speeds where there was insufficient lubricant entrainment. The experimental results have been compared with a finite difference solution of Reynolds equation and reasonable agreement is seen between theory and experiment. The results indicate that liquid lubrication is potentially an effective means of lubricating MEMS components with high levels of sliding.
Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, Wayte R, et al., 2012, Lubrication of microelectromechanical devices using liquids of different viscosities, Journal of Tribology, Vol: 134, ISSN: 0742-4787
Lubrication of contacting and sliding surfaces in MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) is particularly challenging because of the predominance of surface forces at the microscale. The current paper explores the possibility of using liquid lubrication in this application. Measurements of friction and lubricant film thickness have been made for liquid lubricants of different viscosities, including low viscosity silicone oil, hexadecane, squalane, and water. Testing was carried out using a newly developed MEMS tribometer in which a rotating silicon disk is loaded against a stationary silicon disk. Two different test setups were used: one where both disks are flat, and the other where the stationary disk is structured as in a thrust pad bearing. In all tests the disks were fully submerged in the lubricant. With the flat-on-patterned disk combination, the variation of friction with rotation speed was found to follow classical Stribeck curves for all the lubricants tested. The friction at high speeds also decreased with increasing normal load, in accordance with hydrodynamic lubrication theory. For the least viscous lubricants, it was found that the hydrodynamic friction coefficients remained relatively low even at higher speeds. In particular, for water the friction coefficient for water was around 0.1 at 10,000 rpm. However, boundary friction was found to be unacceptably high at low speeds where there was insufficient lubricant entrainment. The experimental results have been compared with a finite difference solution of Reynolds equation and reasonable agreement is seen between theory and experiment. The results indicate that liquid lubrication is potentially an effective means of lubricating MEMS components with high levels of sliding. 2012 American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, Holmes AS, et al., 2011, Wear of silicon surfaces in MEMS, Wear, Vol: 271, Pages: 1050-8, ISSN: 0043-1648
High levels of friction and wear are problems which currently limit the development of sliding micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) - devices which would otherwise offer significant technological advancement. The current paper focuses on the wear of MEMS silicon surfaces, and specifically looks at the effect of environment and surface preparation on wear behaviour. Included in the study is the assessment of two self-replenishing lubrication mechanisms; namely liquid and vapour phase lubrication. All tests were carried out using a tribometer which operated and measured friction and wear under conditions representative of MEMS.It is shown that friction and wear behaviour depend strongly on subtle changes of the silicon surfaces prior to testing. Greatest wear was measured when the surfaces were tested immediately after plasma-cleaning, while subsequent exposure to ambient air for 15h reduced wear to negligible levels. Exposure of plasma-cleaned surfaces to water-saturated argon prior to testing prevented wear to a limited extent. Based on this, and TOF-SIMS analysis, it is suggested that the observed wear reduction after exposure to air is caused by tiny amounts of lubricious long chain hydrocarbon contaminants present in ambient air.Tests carried out with the specimens submerged in a liquid bath show that the presence of liquid water reduces friction and wear, but only if specimens have been plasma-cleaned beforehand. This behaviour is tentatively attributed to the hydrophilic nature of plasma treated silicon, reducing the corrosive action of water. When hexadecane or 1-pentanol was used as a liquid lubricant, friction was minimal, and wear was undetectable under all sliding conditions. This was the case even though the contact operated in the mixed lubrication regime, suggesting a boundary film is formed on the silicon surfaces by both of these organic liquids.Results of tests carried out with the lubricant being supplied in the form of pentanol vapour also showe
Dwyer-Joyce RS, Reddyhoff T, Zhu J, 2011, Ultrasonic measurement for film thickness and solid contact in elastohydrodynamic lubrication, Journal of Tribology, Vol: 133, ISSN: 0742-4787
The reflection of ultrasound can be used to determine oil film thickness in elastohydrodynamic lubricated (EHL) contacts if the opposing surfaces are fully separated by the liquid layer. The proportion of the wave amplitude reflected depends on the stiffness of the liquid layer, which is a function of its bulk modulus and thickness. However, in many practical applications, boundary or mixed film lubrication is a common occurrence as the nominal thickness of the separating film is of a similar order to the height of the surface asperities. The reflection is then dependent on both the liquid contact and solid contact parts and the total interfacial stiffness is the controlling parameter. In this paper an investigation was carried to study the reflection of ultrasonic waves from the lubricated contact between a sliding steel ball and a flat steel disc when substantial solid contact occurs. To interpret the ultrasonic reflection results, a mixed regime model for a circular point contact was established. The liquid film stiffness was calculated by using a predicted film thickness and a bulk modulus estimated from published rheological models of lubricants under high pressure. Solid contact stiffness was predicted using a statistical rough surface contact model. Under all operating conditions, the prediction of fluid stiff ness was found to be much greater than the solid contact stiffness. The total stiffness predicted by the model showed good agreement with experimental measurements for kinematic cases. The model was used to separate the stiffness contributions from the asperity contact part and lubricant layer part from the experimental data. For contact pressures ranging from 0.42 to 0.84 GPa and sliding speed from zero to 2 m/s, the film thickness was found to vary from 0.01 to 0.8 m, and the proportion of the load supported by asperity contact varied from 50% to 0%.
Ingram M, Reddyhoff T, Spikes HA, 2011, Thermal behaviour of a slipping wet clutch contact, Tribology Letters, Vol: 41, Pages: 23-32, ISSN: 1023-8883
Wet clutches are used in automatic transmissions to enable gear changes and also to reduce energy loss in the torque converter. These friction devices are susceptible to stick-slip effects, which result in the vehicle giving an unsteady ride. Stick-slip effects can be avoided by ensuring the wet clutch and lubricant combination produces a friction coefficient that increases with sliding speed. Although wet clutches have been studied throughout the industry for many decades, the mechanism of the generated friction is still not fully understood. It is known that, because of the fibrous nature and thus very large roughness of friction material, the overall contact between clutch plates actually consists of many small, independent, contact units, which are the sites of the generated friction. Some authors have suggested that a temperature rise due to friction either at these contact units or of the overall clutch plate may be important in controlling friction behaviour. In this study, the flash temperatures at the contact units formed in the wet clutch contact have been measured using an infrared camera. Three friction materials have been tested. It was found that measured flash temperature in a pure sliding system similar to that present in a slipping clutch remain well below 5 C, and are therefore unlikely to play a major role in the observed friction-speed dependency of slipping wet clutches at speeds below 2 m/s.
Reddyhoff T, Ku ISY, Holmes AS, et al., 2011, Friction Modifier Behaviour in Lubricated MEMS Devices, Tribology Letters, Vol: 41, Pages: 239-46, ISSN: 1023-8883
Low viscosity fluids could provide reliable lubrication for certain microelectromechanical system's (MEMS) applications where high-sliding speeds and/or high sliding distances occur. However, while the use of low viscosity fluids leads to reduced hydrodynamic friction, high boundary friction can be a significant issue at low entrainment speeds. This article describes a series of tests of low viscosity fluids, blended with a friction modifier additive so as to provide a combination of both low hydrodynamic and low boundary friction at MEMS scales. The low viscosity fluids tested were hexadecane, low viscosity silicone oil, toluene and water. With the exception of water, the addition of the organic friction modifier octadecylamine to all these lubricating fluids produced a significant reduction in boundary friction. For a MEMS contact lubricated with silicone oil for instance, boundary friction was reduced from 0.5 to close to 0.05. The presence of the amine dissolved in the toluene had the effect of reducing boundary friction from 0.75 to 0.55; this was further reduced to 0.25 after the specimens had been immersed in the toluene-additive blend for 48 h. A water-soluble additive, diethylamine, was added to de-ionized water, at 0.1% by weight concentration. Although an initial reduction in boundary friction was observed (0.45-0.25), under these conditions the rapid onset of severe wear negated these effects. It is suggested that corrosion of silicon by water, followed by abrasion, is the cause of this accelerated wear.
Ingram M, Reddyhoff T, Spikes HA, 2011, Thermal behaviour of a slipping wet clutch contact, Tribology Letters, Vol: 41, Pages: 23-32, ISSN: 1023-8883
Wet clutches are used in automatic transmissions to enable gear changes and also to reduce energy loss in the torque converter. These friction devices are susceptible to stick-slip effects, which result in the vehicle giving an unsteady ride. Stick-slip effects can be avoided by ensuring the wet clutch and lubricant combination produces a friction coefficient that increases with sliding speed. Although wet clutches have been studied throughout the industry for many decades, the mechanism of the generated friction is still not fully understood. It is known that, because of the fibrous nature and thus very large roughness of friction material, the overall contact between clutch plates actually consists of many small, independent, contact units, which are the sites of the generated friction. Some authors have suggested that a temperature rise due to friction either at these contact units or of the overall clutch plate may be important in controlling friction behaviour. In this study, the flash temperatures at the contact units formed in the wet clutch contact have been measured using an infrared camera. Three friction materials have been tested. It was found that measured flash temperature in a pure sliding system similar to that present in a slipping clutch remain well below 5 C, and are therefore unlikely to play a major role in the observed friction-speed dependency of slipping wet clutches at speeds below 2 m/s. 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Dwyer-Joyce RS, Reddyhoff T, Zhu J, 2011, Ultrasonic measurement for film thickness and solid contact in elastohydrodynamic lubrication, Journal of Tribology, Vol: 133, ISSN: 0742-4787
The reflection of ultrasound can be used to determine oil film thickness in elastohydrodynamic lubricated (EHL) contacts if the opposing surfaces are fully separated by the liquid layer. The proportion of the wave amplitude reflected depends on the stiffness of the liquid layer, which is a function of its bulk modulus and thickness. However, in many practical applications, boundary or mixed film lubrication is a common occurrence as the nominal thickness of the separating film is of a similar order to the height of the surface asperities. The reflection is then dependent on both the liquid contact and solid contact parts and the total interfacial stiffness is the controlling parameter. In this paper an investigation was carried to study the reflection of ultrasonic waves from the lubricated contact between a sliding steel ball and a flat steel disc when substantial solid contact occurs. To interpret the ultrasonic reflection results, a mixed regime model for a circular point contact was established. The liquid film stiffness was calculated by using a predicted film thickness and a bulk modulus estimated from published rheological models of lubricants under high pressure. Solid contact stiffness was predicted using a statistical rough surface contact model. Under all operating conditions, the prediction of fluid stiffness was found to be much greater than the solid contact stiffness. The total stiffness predicted by the model showed good agreement with experimental measurements for kinematic cases. The model was used to separate the stiffness contributions from the asperity contact part and lubricant layer part from the experimental data. For contact pressures ranging from 0.42 to 0.84 GPa and sliding speed from zero to 2 ms, the film thickness was found to vary from 0.01 to 0.8 m, and the proportion of the load supported by asperity contact varied from 50% to 0%. 2011 American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, Holmes AS, et al., 2011, Wear of silicon surfaces in MEMS, Wear, Vol: 271, Pages: 1050-1058, ISSN: 0043-1648
High levels of friction and wear are problems which currently limit the development of sliding micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) - devices which would otherwise offer significant technological advancement. The current paper focuses on the wear of MEMS silicon surfaces, and specifically looks at the effect of environment and surface preparation on wear behaviour. Included in the study is the assessment of two self-replenishing lubrication mechanisms; namely liquid and vapour phase lubrication. All tests were carried out using a tribometer which operated and measured friction and wear under conditions representative of MEMS.It is shown that friction and wear behaviour depend strongly on subtle changes of the silicon surfaces prior to testing. Greatest wear was measured when the surfaces were tested immediately after plasma-cleaning, while subsequent exposure to ambient air for 15. h reduced wear to negligible levels. Exposure of plasma-cleaned surfaces to water-saturated argon prior to testing prevented wear to a limited extent. Based on this, and TOF-SIMS analysis, it is suggested that the observed wear reduction after exposure to air is caused by tiny amounts of lubricious long chain hydrocarbon contaminants present in ambient air.Tests carried out with the specimens submerged in a liquid bath show that the presence of liquid water reduces friction and wear, but only if specimens have been plasma-cleaned beforehand. This behaviour is tentatively attributed to the hydrophilic nature of plasma treated silicon, reducing the corrosive action of water. When hexadecane or 1-pentanol was used as a liquid lubricant, friction was minimal, and wear was undetectable under all sliding conditions. This was the case even though the contact operated in the mixed lubrication regime, suggesting a boundary film is formed on the silicon surfaces by both of these organic liquids.Results of tests carried out with the lubricant being supplied in the form of pentanol vapour also sho
Reddyhoff T, Ku ISY, Holmes AS, et al., 2011, Friction modifier behaviour in lubricated MEMS devices, Tribology Letters, Vol: 41, Pages: 239-246, ISSN: 1023-8883
Low viscosity fluids could provide reliable lubrication for certain microelectromechanical system's (MEMS) applications where high-sliding speeds and/or high sliding distances occur. However, while the use of low viscosity fluids leads to reduced hydrodynamic friction, high boundary friction can be a significant issue at low entrainment speeds. This article describes a series of tests of low viscosity fluids, blended with a friction modifier additive so as to provide a combination of both low hydrodynamic and low boundary friction at MEMS scales. The low viscosity fluids tested were hexadecane, low viscosity silicone oil, toluene and water. With the exception of water, the addition of the organic friction modifier octadecylamine to all these lubricating fluids produced a significant reduction in boundary friction. For a MEMS contact lubricated with silicone oil for instance, boundary friction was reduced from 0.5 to close to 0.05. The presence of the amine dissolved in the toluene had the effect of reducing boundary friction from 0.75 to 0.55; this was further reduced to 0.25 after the specimens had been immersed in the toluene-additive blend for 48 h. A water-soluble additive, diethylamine, was added to de-ionized water, at 0.1% by weight concentration. Although an initial reduction in boundary friction was observed (0.45-0.25), under these conditions the rapid onset of severe wear negated these effects. It is suggested that corrosion of silicon by water, followed by abrasion, is the cause of this accelerated wear. 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Andablo-Reyes E, de Vicente J, Hidalgo-Alvarez R, et al., 2010, Soft Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication, Tribology Letters, Vol: 39, Pages: 109-14, ISSN: 1023-8883
This article examines the use of ferrofluids to control starvation in lubricated contacts. Starvation in a ball-plate contact is experimentally studied under sliding-rolling conditions using a Mini Traction Machine (MTM). Friction is measured and the experimental results are presented in the form of Stribeck curves. The volume of lubricant is controlled in such a way that no free bulk oil is present in the vicinity of the contact. An abrupt change in the slope of the Stribeck curve in the Hydrodynamic Lubrication zone is interpreted as the onset of starvation. It is then shown that the use of ferrofluids in the presence of a magnetic field distribution can change the conditions at which this onset of starvation occurs. Different magnetic field distributions are tested for different values of load and ferrofluid viscosity. It is proposed that ferrofluid lubricants in conjunction with a suitably positioned magnetic field can be used to promote replenishment, and thus control and reduce lubricant starvation.
Reddyhoff T, Choo JH, Spikes HA, et al., 2010, Lubricant Flow in an Elastohydrodynamic Contact Using Fluorescence, Tribology Letters, Vol: 38, Pages: 207-15, ISSN: 1023-8883
It is well-documented that parameters, such as film thickness and temperature in EHL contacts, can be measured experimentally using a range of techniques include optical interferometry, ultrasonics, capacitance and infrared emission. Considerably less is known, however, about the flow of lubricant through such contacts. Information about lubricant flow would greatly benefit the prediction of friction in machine components. This article describes initial steps to develop fluorescence as a means of observing lubricant flow. An EHL contact was produced between a steel ball and a glass disc and viewed using a fluorescence microscope. The entrained lubricant was dyed using a fluorescent species, so that when illuminated with laser light, a fluorescence intensity map could be viewed. When the contact was fully flooded with dyed lubricant, the fluorescence intensity within the contact correlated well with optical interferometric film thickness measurements under the same conditions. This suggests useful possibilities for mapping film thickness in contacts where conventional optical methods are impractical, such as between rough surfaces and within soft contacts. In order to observe how lubricant flows in an EHL contact, fluorescer-containing lubricant was placed on the out-of-contact track. The boundary between fluorescent and non-fluorescent lubricant was then entrained into the contact and the passage of the boundary through the contact was monitored.
Andablo-Reyes E, De Vicente J, Hidalgo-Alvarez R, et al., 2010, Soft elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication, 233 Springer Street, New York, NY 10013-1578, United States, Publisher: Springer New York, Pages: 109-114, ISSN: 1023-8883
This article examines the use of ferrofluids to control starvation in lubricated contacts. Starvation in a ball-plate contact is experimentally studied under sliding-rolling conditions using a Mini Traction Machine (MTM). Friction is measured and the experimental results are presented in the form of Stribeck curves. The volume of lubricant is controlled in such a way that no free bulk oil is present in the vicinity of the contact. An abrupt change in the slope of the Stribeck curve in the Hydrodynamic Lubrication zone is interpreted as the onset of starvation. It is then shown that the use of ferrofluids in the presence of a magnetic field distribution can change the conditions at which this onset of starvation occurs. Different magnetic field distributions are tested for different values of load and ferrofluid viscosity. It is proposed that ferrofluid lubricants in conjunction with a suitably positioned magnetic field can be used to promote replenishment, and thus control and reduce lubricant starvation. 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Hergert R, Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, et al., 2010, Micro rotary ball bearing with integrated ball cage: Fabrication and characterization, Hong Kong, China, 23rd IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, MEMS 2010, January 24, 2010 - January 28, 2010, Publisher: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., Pages: 687-690, ISSN: 1084-6999
This paper presents a rotary MEMS ball bearing with an integrated silicon ball cage. The device is a deep groove radial ball bearing consisting of steel balls encapsulated between two micromachined silicon wafers. The silicon ball cage is released from the bulk silicon substrate during fabrication. The objective was to show that a simple caged bearing design provides reliable motion at both high and low speeds. The running torque of two identical devices was measured for speeds ranging from 10 to 20,000 rpm. One of the devices was disassembled before failure to provide images of the wear experienced during testing. 2010 IEEE.
Reddyhoff T, Choo JH, Spikes HA, et al., 2010, Lubricant flow in an elastohydrodynamic contact using fluorescence, Tribology Letters, Vol: 38, Pages: 207-215, ISSN: 1023-8883
It is well-documented that parameters, such as film thickness and temperature in EHL contacts, can be measured experimentally using a range of techniques include optical interferometry, ultrasonics, capacitance and infrared emission. Considerably less is known, however, about the flow of lubricant through such contacts. Information about lubricant flow would greatly benefit the prediction of friction in machine components. This article describes initial steps to develop fluorescence as a means of observing lubricant flow. An EHL contact was produced between a steel ball and a glass disc and viewed using a fluorescence microscope. The entrained lubricant was dyed using a fluorescent species, so that when illuminated with laser light, a fluorescence intensity map could be viewed. When the contact was fully flooded with dyed lubricant, the fluorescence intensity within the contact correlated well with optical interferometric film thickness measurements under the same conditions. This suggests useful possibilities for mapping film thickness in contacts where conventional optical methods are impractical, such as between rough surfaces and within soft contacts. In order to observe how lubricant flows in an EHL contact, fluorescer-containing lubricant was placed on the out-of-contact track. The boundary between fluorescent and non-fluorescent lubricant was then entrained into the contact and the passage of the boundary through the contact was monitored. 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Myant C, Reddyhoff T, Spikes HA, 2010, Laser-induced fluorescence for film thickness mapping in pure sliding lubricated, compliant, contacts, Tribology International, Vol: 43, Pages: 1960-1969, ISSN: 0301-679X
A laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) technique has been used to measure fluid film thickness in a compliant, sliding contact under low-load/low-pressure conditions. The soft contact between an elastomer hemisphere and a glass disc is lubricated by a liquid containing fluorescent dye. The contact is then illuminated with 532 nm laser light through the glass disc, and viewed with a fluorescence microscope. From the intensity of emitted radiation, film thickness maps of the contact are determined. Previous calibration procedures have used a separate calibration piece and test specimen with possible errors due to differences in reflectivity between the calibration and test specimens. In the work reported in this paper a new calibration process is employed using the actual test sample, thereby avoiding such errors. Results are reported for a sliding contact between PDMS and glass, lubricated with glycerol and water solutions under fully flooded and starved conditions. It was found that, for glycerol, the measured film thickness is somewhat lower than numerical predictions for both lubrication conditions. It is suggested that a combination of thermal effects and the hygroscopic nature of glycerol may cause the lubricant viscosity to drop resulting in thinner films than those predicted for fully flooded contacts. Starvation occurs above a critical entrainment speed and results in considerably thinner films than predicted by fully flooded I-EHL theory. A numerical study has been carried out to determine the effect of the observed starvation on film thickness. Predicted, starved film thickness values agree well with those obtained experimentally. 2010 Elsevier Ltd.
Dwyer-Joyce RS, Zhu J, Reddyhoff T, 2010, Ultrasonic measurement for film thickness and solid contact in elastohydrodynamic lubrication, San Francisco, CA, United states, STLE/ASME 2010 International Joint Tribology Conference, IJTC2010, October 17, 2010 - October 20, 2010, Publisher: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Pages: 111-113
The reflection of ultrasound can be used to determine oil film thickness from the stiffness of the separating film. However, boundary or mixed film lubrication is a common occurrence in elastohydrodynamic lubricated (EHL) contacts, as the nominal thickness of the separating film approaches the surface asperity height. In this paper an ultrasonic investigation was carried out on the interface between a steel ball sliding on a flat disc as the speed was reduced into the boundary regime. The ultrasonic reflection then depends on the stiffness of the interface that now consists of an oil layer and asperity contacts. To distinguish the stiffness contribution from asperity contact and oil layer, a mixed lubrication model for circular contacts was established. This predicted the lubricant film thickness and proportions of solid and liquid mediated contact. The total stiffness predicted by theoretical models showed a good agreement with experimental measurement for kinematic cases. The model can then be used to extract the proportion of real area of contact, and the oil film thickness, from ultrasonic results. Copyright 2010 by ASME.
Hergert R, Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, et al., 2010, Micro rotary ball bearing with integrated ball cage: Fabrication and characterization, Piscataway, NJ, USA, 23rd IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 2010), 24-28 Jan. 2010, Publisher: IEEE, Pages: 687-90
This paper presents a rotary MEMS ball bearing with an integrated silicon ball cage. The device is a deep groove radial ball bearing consisting of steel balls encapsulated between two micromachined silicon wafers. The silicon ball cage is released from the bulk silicon substrate during fabrication. The objective was to show that a simple caged bearing design provides reliable motion at both high and low speeds. The running torque of two identical devices was measured for speeds ranging from 10 to 20,000 rpm. One of the devices was disassembled before failure to provide images of the wear experienced during testing.
Viesca JL, Battez AH, Gonzalez R, et al., 2010, Assessing boundary film formation of lubricant additivised with 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate using ECR as qualitative indicator, Wear, Vol: 269, Pages: 112-117, ISSN: 0043-1648
Boundary film formation of ionic liquid (IL) 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, [HMIM][BF4], as an additive of hydrocracked mineral oil is evaluated for a steel-steel contact. Accelerated wear testing was carried out using a high frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR) under these test conditions: maximum contact pressure of 1.04 GPa, two different temperatures (40 and 100 C) and three different times (300, 1800 and 3600 s). Wear volumes were measured using a non-contact 3D profilometer while worn surfaces were characterized using XPS. Furthermore, electrical contact resistance (ECR) was used as qualitative indicator of the formation of electrically insulating films in the sliding contact. Experiments show that the rate of boundary film formation of base oil-ionic liquid blend is faster than neat base oil. Moreover, ECR was in good agreement with film formation and friction behaviour. Ionic liquid as additive not only decreases the time of running-in but also the time of wear-in. Results of neat base oil show that wear-in was not reached during any duration of tests. The improved friction and wear results for the blend are closely related to the boundary film formation on the worn surfaces due to the reactivity of the anion with the steel surfaces. 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Ku ISY, Reddyhoff T, Choo JH, et al., 2010, A novel tribometer for the measurement of friction in MEMS, Tribology International, Vol: 43, Pages: 1087-1090, ISSN: 0301-679X
A new tribometer has been developed to determine friction under conditions that are representative of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical-systems). The tribometer consists of a rotating silicon disc, loaded against a stationary silicon disc. Friction and film thickness values are measured using laser displacement techniques. In this study, two different test set-ups were used: a flat on flat specimen geometry, and a moving flat against a structured surface, similar to that of a miniature thrust pad bearing. Using this tribometer, hydrodynamic tests have been carried out with the specimens fully submerged in hydrocarbon lubricants. Results suggest that friction increases with sliding speed and decreases with increasing applied normal load, which is in accordance with the hydrodynamic theory. 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Hili J, Reddyhoff T, Olver AV, et al., 2010, FILM FORMING CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL-IN-WATER EMULSIONS IN ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC CONTACTS, ASME/STLE International Joint Tribology Conference, Publisher: AMER SOC MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, Pages: 143-145
Reddyhoff T, Underwood RJ, Nikas GK, et al., 2009, Thermal aspects of debris in EHL contacts
A technique is developed for the measurement of the temperature rise resulting from debris entrainment in an EHL lubricated contact. Under pure rolling, temperature rises are small, because minimal shearing occurs. Under sliding conditions, the temperature rise generally increases from when the particle is entrapped in the inlet zone, to peak near the contact centre where shearing is a maximum. The measured values and the theoretical simulation show a similar trend in temperature rise as the particle passes through the contact. The magnitude of predicted temperatures is significantly higher than those measured. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the World Tribology Congress (Kyoto, Japan 9/6-11/2009).
Nakano K, Reddyhoff T, Cann P, et al., 2009, Film formation of liquid crystals in EHD contacts
The film formation of two types of liquid crystals, i.e., 4-pentyl-4′-cyanobiphenyl (5CB) and 4-octyl-4′-cyanobiphenyl (8CB), was studied in EHD contacts. The enhancement of film formation by the addition of palmitic acid affected the traction characteristics of 5CB. The traction coefficient of pure 5CB increased significantly with a decrease in the entrainment speed at entrainment speeds below 0.1 m/sec. The change in the EHD film of pure 8CB was similar to that of 5CB with 0.1 wt % palmitic acid. The traction coefficient of 8CB was lower than that of 5CB, ≈ 0.02, which was maintained at low entrainment speeds. These special properties were attributed to the layer structure of the smectic phase. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the Proceedings of World Tribology Conference (Kyoto, Japan 9/6-11/2009).
Reddyhoff T, Ku ISY, Choo JH, et al., 2009, Lubrication of high sliding MEMS
Effective lubrication for micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) was studied. A new micro-tribometer was developed to measure friction and film thickness under conditions representative of MEMS. For hydrocarbon lubricants, friction increased with sliding speed and decreased with increasing applied normal load, which is in accord with hydrodynamic theory. Using low viscosity fluids, satisfactory friction coefficient values were obtained with negligible wear. Good agreement was obtained between experimental results and a finite difference model. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the World Tribology Congress (Kyoto, Japan 9/6-11/209).
Reddyhoff T, Spikes HA, Olver AV, 2009, Improved infrared temperature mapping of elastohydrodynamic contacts, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology, Vol: 223, Pages: 1165-1177, ISSN: 1350-6501
An effective means of studying lubricant rheology within elastohydrodynamic contacts is by detailed mapping of the temperature of the fluid and the bounding surfaces within the lubricated contact area. In the current work, the experimental approach initially developed by Sanborn and Winer and then by Spikes et al., has been advanced to include a high specification infrared (IR) camera and microscope. Besides the instantaneous capture of full field measurements, this has the advantage of increased sensitivity and higher spatial resolution than previous systems used. The increased sensitivity enables a much larger range of testable operating conditions: namely lower loads, speeds, and reduced sliding. In addition, the range of test lubricants can be extended beyond high shearing traction fluids. These new possibilities have been used to investigate and compare the rheological properties of a range of lubricants: namely a group I and group II mineral oil, a polyalphaolephin (group IV), the traction fluid Santotrac 50, and 5P4E, a five-ring polyphenyl-ether. As expected, contact temperatures increased with lubricant refinement, for the mineral base oils tested. Using moving heat source theory, the measured temperature distributions were converted into maps showing rate of heat input into each surface, from which shear stresses were calculated. The technique could therefore be validated by integrating these shear stress maps, and comparing them with traction values obtained by direct measurement. Generally there was good agreement between the two approaches, with the only significant differences occurring for 5P4E, where the traction that was deduced from the temperature over-predicted the traction by roughly 15 per cent. Of the lubricants tested, Santotrac 50 showed the highest average traction over the contact; however, 5P4E showed the highest maximum traction. This observation is only possible using the IR mapping technique, and is obscured when measuring the traction
Reddyhoff T, Spikes HA, Olver AV, 2009, Compression heating and cooling in elastohydrodynamic contacts, Tribology Letters, Vol: 36, Pages: 69-80, ISSN: 1023-8883
In this study, the infrared temperature mapping technique, originally developed by Sanborn and Winer (Trans ASME J Tribol 93:262-271, 1971) and extended by Spikes et al. (Tribol Lett 17(3):593-605, 2004), has been made more sensitive and used to study the temperature rise of elastohydrodynamic contacts in pure rolling. Under such conditions lubricant shear heating within the contact is considered negligible and this allows temperature changes due to lubricant compression to be investigated. Pure rolling surface temperature distributions have been obtained for contacts lubricated with a range of lubricants, included a group I, and group II mineral oil, a polyalphaolefin (group IV), the traction fluid Santotrac 50 and 5P4E, a five-ring polyphenyl-ether. Resulting maps show the temperature rise in the contact increases in the inlet due to compression heating and then decreases and in most cases becomes negative in the exit region due to the effect of decompression. Temperature changes increase with entrainment speed but in the current tests are always very small, and less than 1 C. Contact temperature rises from compression were compared to those from sliding contacts (where a slide-roll ratio of 0.5 was applied). Here the contribution to the contact temperature from compression is shown to decrease dramatically with entrainment speed. The lubricant 5P4E is found to behave differently from other lubricants tested in that it showed a peak in temperature at the outlet. This effect becomes more pronounced with increasing speed, and has tentatively been attributed to a phase change in the exit region. Using moving heat source theory, the measured temperature distributions have been converted to maps showing rate of heat input into each surface and the latter compared with theory. Qualitative agreement between theory and experiment is found, and a more accurate theoretical comparison is the subject of ongoing study. 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Reddyhoff T, Spikes HA, Olver AV, 2009, Improved temperature mapping of ehl contacts, Miami, FL, United states, 2008 STLE/ASME International Joint Tribology Conference, IJTC 2008, October 20, 2008 - October 22, 2008, Publisher: ASME, Pages: 265-267
An effective means of studying lubricant film rheology within EHL contacts is by detailed mapping of the temperature of the fluid and the bounding surfaces within the lubricated contact area. This provides a way of directly measuring the rheology of lubricant films under true EHL conditions. Furthermore, temperature measurement itself provides a very effective means of testing and validating computer simulations. In the current work, the experimental approach initially developed by Sanborn and Winer [11 and then by Spikes and co-workers [2], has been advanced to include a high specification infrared (IR) camera and microscope. This is a similar approach to that taken by Yagi and Kyogoku [3]. As well as the instantaneous capture of full field measurements, this has the advantage of increased sensitivity and higher spatial resolution than previous systems used. The increased sensitivity enables a much larger range of testable operating conditions; namely lower loads, speeds and reduced sliding. In addition, the range of test lubricants can be extended beyond high shearing traction fluids. One additional advantage of instantaneous full field measurements is that the weak infrared optical interference caused by the film can be observed and can used to exactly locate the centre of the contact in the resulting temperature maps. These new possibilities have been used to investigate and compare the rheological properties and compression cooling effects exhibited by a PAO, a group II mineral oil, and a traction fluid. Copyright 2008 by ASME.
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