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Journal articleVerity RJ, Hathaway N, Waltmann A, et al., 2018,
Plasmodium falciparum genetic variation of var2csa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
, Malaria Journal, Vol: 17, ISSN: 1475-2875Background: The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) bears a high burden of malaria, which is exacerbated inpregnant women. The VAR2CSA protein plays a crucial role in pregnancy-associated malaria (PAM), and hence quantifyingdiversity at the var2csa locus in the DRC is important in understanding the basic epidemiology of PAM, and indeveloping a robust vaccine against PAM.Methods: Samples were taken from the 2013–14 Demographic and Health Survey conducted in the DRC, focusingon children under 5 years of age. A short subregion of the var2csa gene was sequenced in 115 spatial clusters, givingcountry-wide estimates of sequence polymorphism and spatial population structure.Results: Results indicate that var2csa is highly polymorphic, and that diversity is being maintained through balancingselection, however, there is no clear signal of phylogenetic or geographic structure to this diversity. Linear modellingdemonstrates that the number of var2csa variants in a cluster correlates directly with cluster prevalence, but not withother epidemiological factors such as urbanicity.Conclusions: Results suggest that the DRC fts within the global pattern of high var2csa diversity and little geneticdiferentiation between regions. A broad multivalent VAR2CSA vaccine candidate could beneft from targeting stableregions and common variants to address the substantial genetic diversity.
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Journal articleKaslow DC, Okumu F, Wells TNC, et al., 2017,
malERA: An updated research agenda for diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and vector control in malaria elimination and eradication
, PLoS Medicine, Vol: 14, ISSN: 1549-1277Since the turn of the century, a remarkable expansion has been achieved in the range andeffectiveness of products and strategies available to prevent, treat, and control malaria,including advances in diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and vector control. These advanceshave once again put malaria elimination on the agenda. However, it is clear that even withthe means available today, malaria control and elimination pose a formidable challenge inmany settings. Thus, currently available resources must be used more effectively, and newproducts and approaches likely to achieve these goals must be developed. This paper considerstools (both those available and others that may be required) to achieve and maintainmalaria elimination. New diagnostics are needed to direct treatment and detect transmissionpotential; new drugs and vaccines to overcome existing resistance and protect against clinicaland severe disease, as well as block transmission and prevent relapses; and new vectorcontrol measures to overcome insecticide resistance and more powerfully interrupt transmission.It is also essential that strategies for combining new and existing approaches aredeveloped for different settings to maximise their longevity and effectiveness in areas withcontinuing transmission and receptivity. For areas where local elimination has been recentlyachieved, understanding which measures are needed to maintain elimination is necessaryto prevent rebound and the reestablishment of transmission. This becomes increasinglyimportant as more countries move towards elimination.
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Journal articleWinskill P, Slater H, Griffin J, et al., 2017,
The US President's Malaria Initiative, Plasmodium falciparum transmission and mortality: A modelling study
, PLoS Medicine, Vol: 14, ISSN: 1549-1277BackgroundAlthough significant progress has been made in reducing malaria transmission globally inrecent years, a large number of people remain at risk and hence the gains made are fragile.Funding lags well behind amounts needed to protect all those at risk and ongoing contributionsfrom major donors, such as the President’s Malaria Initiative (PMI), are vital to maintainprogress and pursue further reductions in burden. We use a mathematical modellingapproach to estimate the impact of PMI investments to date in reducing malaria burden andto explore the potential negative impact on malaria burden should a proposed 44% reductionin PMI funding occur.Methods and findingsWe combined an established mathematical model of Plasmodium falciparum transmissiondynamics with epidemiological, intervention, and PMI-financing data to estimate the contributionPMI has made to malaria control via funding for long-lasting insecticide treated nets(LLINs), indoor residual spraying (IRS), and artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs). Weestimate that PMI has prevented 185 million (95% CrI: 138 million, 230 million) malariacases and saved 940,049 (95% CrI: 545,228, 1.4 million) lives since 2005. If funding is maintained,PMI-funded interventions are estimated to avert a further 162 million cases (95%CrI: 116 million, 194 million) cases, saving a further 692,589 (95% CrI: 392,694, 955,653)lives between 2017 and 2020. With an estimate of US$94 (95% CrI: US$51, US$166) perDisability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) averted, PMI-funded interventions are highly costeffective.We also demonstrate the further impact of this investment by reducing caseloadson health systems. If a 44% reduction in PMI funding were to occur, we predict that this lossof direct aid could result in an additional 67 million (95% CrI: 49 million, 82 million) cases and290,649 deaths (95% CrI: 167,208, 395,263) deaths between 2017 and 2020. We have notmodelled indirect impacts of PMI funding (such as health systems strengthening
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Journal articleChallenger J, Bruxvoort K, Ghani AC, et al., 2017,
Assessing the impact of imperfect adherence to artemether-lumefantrine on malaria treatment outcomes using within-host modelling
, Nature Communications, Vol: 8, ISSN: 2041-1723Artemether-lumefantrine (AL) is the most widely-recommended treatment for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria worldwide. Its safety and efficacy have been extensively demonstrated in clinical trials; however, its performance in routine health care settings, where adherence to drug treatment is unsupervised and therefore may be suboptimal, is less well characterised. Here we develop a within-host modelling framework for estimating the effects of sub-optimal adherence to AL treatment on clinical outcomes in malaria patients. Our model incorporates data on the human immune response to the parasite, and AL’s pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Utilising individual-level data of adherence to AL in 482 Tanzanian patients as input for our model predicted higher rates of treatment failure than were obtained when adherence was optimal (9% compared to 4%). Our model estimates that the impact of imperfect adherence was worst in children, highlighting the importance of advice to caregivers.
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Journal articleWatson O, Slater HC, Verity R, et al., 2017,
Modelling the drivers of the spread of Plasmodium falciparum hrp2 gene deletions in sub-Saharan Africa
, eLife, Vol: 6, ISSN: 2050-084XRapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) have transformed malaria diagnosis. The most prevalent P. falciparum RDTs detect histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2). However, pfhrp2 gene deletions yielding false-negative RDTs, first reported in South America in 2010, have been confirmed in Africa and Asia. We developed a mathematical model to explore the potential for RDT-led diagnosis to drive selection of pfhrp2-deleted parasites. Low malaria prevalence and high frequencies of people seeking treatment resulted in the greatest selection pressure. Calibrating our model against confirmed pfhrp2-deletions in the Democratic Republic of Congo, we estimate a starting frequency of 6% pfhrp2-deletion prior to RDT introduction. Furthermore, the patterns observed necessitate a degree of selection driven by the introduction of PfHRP2-based RDT-guided treatment. Combining this with parasite prevalence and treatment coverage estimates, we map the model-predicted spread of pfhrp2-deletion, and identify the geographic regions in which surveillance for pfhrp2-deletion should be prioritised.
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Journal articleBretscher MT, Griffin JT, Ghani AC, et al., 2017,
Modelling the benefits of long-acting or transmission-blocking drugs for reducing Plasmodium falciparum transmission by case management or by mass treatment
, MALARIA JOURNAL, Vol: 16, ISSN: 1475-2875BackgroundAnti-malarial drugs are an important tool for malaria control and elimination. Alongside their direct benefit in the treatment of disease, drug use has a community-level effect, clearing the reservoir of infection and reducing onward transmission of the parasite. Different compounds potentially have different impacts on transmission—with some providing periods of prolonged chemoprophylaxis whilst others have greater transmission-blocking potential. The aim was to quantify the relative benefit of such properties for transmission reduction to inform target product profiles in the drug development process and choice of first-line anti-malarial treatment in different endemic settings.MethodsA mathematical model of Plasmodium falciparum epidemiology was used to estimate the transmission reduction that can be achieved by using drugs of varying chemoprophylactic (protection for 3, 30 or 60 days) or transmission-blocking activity (blocking 79, 92 or 100% of total onward transmission). Simulations were conducted at low, medium or high transmission intensity (slide-prevalence in 2–10 year olds being 1, 10 or 40%, respectively), with drugs administered either via case management or mass drug administration (MDA).ResultsTransmission reductions depend strongly on deployment strategy, treatment coverage and endemicity level. Transmission-blocking was most effective at low endemicity, whereas chemoprophylaxis was most useful at high endemicity levels. Increasing the duration of protection as much as possible was beneficial. Increasing transmission-blocking activity from the level of ACT to a 100% transmission-blocking drug (close to the effect estimated for ACT combined with primaquine) produced moderate impact but was not as effective as increasing the duration of protection in medium-to-high transmission settings (slide prevalence 10–40%). Combining both good transmission-blocking activity (e.g. as achieved by ACT or ACT + primaquine) and a long durat
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Journal articleOkell L, Griffin JT, Roper C, 2017,
Mapping sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in infected humans and in parasite populations in Africa
, Scientific Reports, Vol: 7, ISSN: 2045-2322Intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine in vulnerable populations reduces malaria morbidity in Africa, but resistance mutations in the parasite dhps gene (combined with dhfr mutations) threaten its efficacy. We update a systematic review to map the prevalence of K540E and A581G mutations in 294 surveys of infected humans across Africa from 2004-present. Interpreting these data is complicated by multiclonal infections in humans, especially in high transmission areas. We extend statistical methods to estimate the frequency, i.e. the proportion of resistant clones in the parasite population at each location, and so standardise for varying transmission levels. Both K540E and A581G mutations increased in prevalence and frequency in 60% of areas after 2008, highlighting the need for ongoing surveillance. Resistance measures within countries were similar within 300 km, suggesting an appropriate spatial scale for surveillance. Spread of the mutations tended to accelerate once their prevalence exceeded 10% (prior to fixation). Frequencies of resistance in parasite populations are the same or lower than prevalence in humans, so more areas would be classified as likely to benefit from IPT if similar frequency thresholds were applied. We propose that the use of resistance frequencies as well as prevalence measures for policy decisions should be evaluated.
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Journal articlePatouillard E, Ghani ACH, Bhatt S, et al., 2017,
Global investment targets for malaria control and elimination between 2016 and 2030
, BMJ Global Health, Vol: 2, ISSN: 2059-7908Background Access to malaria control interventions falls short of universal health coverage. The Global Technical Strategy for malaria targets at least 90% reduction in case incidence and mortality rates, and elimination in 35 countries by 2030. The potential to reach these targets will be determined in part by investments in malaria. This study estimates the financing required for malaria control and elimination over the 2016–2030 period.Methods A mathematical transmission model was used to explore the impact of increasing intervention coverage on burden and costs. The cost analysis took a public provider perspective covering all 97 malaria endemic countries and territories in 2015. All control interventions currently recommended by the WHO were considered. Cost data were sourced from procurement databases, the peer-reviewed literature, national malaria strategic plans, the WHO-CHOICE project and key informant interviews.Results Annual investments of $6.4 billion (95% uncertainty interval (UI $4.5–$9.0 billion)) by 2020, $7.7 billion (95% UI $5.4–$10.9 billion) by 2025 and $8.7 billion (95% UI $6.0–$12.3 billion) by 2030 will be required to reach the targets set in the Global Technical Strategy. These are equivalent to annual investment per person at risk of malaria of US$3.90 by 2020, US$4.30 by 2025 and US$4.40 by 2030, compared with US$2.30 if interventions were sustained at current coverage levels. The 20 countries with the highest burden in 2015 will require 88% of the total investment.Conclusions Given the challenges in increasing domestic and international funding, the efficient use of currently available resources should be a priority
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Journal articleBrady OJ, Slater HC, Pemberton-Ross P, et al., 2017,
Role of mass drug administration in elimination of Plasmodium falciparum malaria: a consensus modelling study
, The Lancet Global Health, Vol: 5, Pages: E680-E687, ISSN: 2214-109XBackgroundMass drug administration for elimination of Plasmodium falciparum malaria is recommended by WHO in some settings. We used consensus modelling to understand how to optimise the effects of mass drug administration in areas with low malaria transmission.MethodsWe collaborated with researchers doing field trials to establish a standard intervention scenario and standard transmission setting, and we input these parameters into four previously published models. We then varied the number of rounds of mass drug administration, coverage, duration, timing, importation of infection, and pre-administration transmission levels. The outcome of interest was the percentage reduction in annual mean prevalence of P falciparum parasite rate as measured by PCR in the third year after the final round of mass drug administration.FindingsThe models predicted differing magnitude of the effects of mass drug administration, but consensus answers were reached for several factors. Mass drug administration was predicted to reduce transmission over a longer timescale than accounted for by the prophylactic effect alone. Percentage reduction in transmission was predicted to be higher and last longer at lower baseline transmission levels. Reduction in transmission resulting from mass drug administration was predicted to be temporary, and in the absence of scale-up of other interventions, such as vector control, transmission would return to pre-administration levels. The proportion of the population treated in a year was a key determinant of simulated effectiveness, irrespective of whether people are treated through high coverage in a single round or new individuals are reached by implementation of several rounds. Mass drug administration was predicted to be more effective if continued over 2 years rather than 1 year, and if done at the time of year when transmission is lowest.InterpretationMass drug administration has the potential to reduce transmission for a limited time, but is not an
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Journal articleWinskill P, Walker P, Griffin J, et al., 2017,
Modelling the cost-effectiveness of introducing the RTS,S malaria vaccine relative to scaling up other malaria interventions in sub-Saharan Africa
, BMJ Global Health, Vol: 2, ISSN: 2059-7908Objectives: To evaluate the relative cost-effectiveness of introducing the RTS,S malaria vaccine in sub-Saharan Africa compared with further scale-up of existing interventions.Design: A mathematical modelling and cost-effectiveness study.Setting: Sub-Saharan Africa.Participants: People of all ages.Interventions: The analysis considers the introduction and scale-up of the RTS,S malaria vaccine and the scale-up of long lasting insecticide treated bed nets (LLINs), indoor residual spraying (IRS) and seasonal malaria chemoprevention (SMC).Main outcome measure: The number of Plasmodium falciparum cases averted in all age groups over a ten year period.Results: Assuming access to treatment remains constant, increasing coverage of LLINs was consistently the most cost-effective intervention across a range of transmission settings and was found to occur early in the cost-effectiveness scale-up pathway. IRS, RTS,S and SMC entered the cost-effective pathway once LLIN coverage had been maximised. If non-linear production functions are included to capture the cost of reaching very high coverage, the resulting pathways become more complex and result in selection of multiple interventions.Conclusions: RTS,S was consistently implemented later in the cost-effectiveness pathway than the LLINs, IRS and SMC but was still of value as a fourth intervention in many settings to reduce burden to the levels set out in the international goals.
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Journal articleOkell LC, Churcher TS, 2016,
Generating the evidence base for malaria elimination: the situation in Haiti
, Lancet Global Health, Vol: 5, Pages: e16-e17, ISSN: 2214-109X -
Journal articleParr JB, Verity R, Doctor SM, et al., 2016,
Pfhrp2-deleted Plasmodium falciparum parasites in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: a national cross-sectional survey
, Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol: 216, Pages: 36-44, ISSN: 0022-1899Background.Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) account for more than two-thirds of malaria diagnoses in Africa. Deletions of the Plasmodium falciparum hrp2 (pfhrp2) gene cause false-negative RDT results and have never been investigated on a national level. Spread of pfhrp2-deleted P. falciparum mutants, resistant to detection by HRP2-based RDTs, would represent a serious threat to malaria elimination efforts.Methods.Using a nationally representative cross-sectional study of 7,137 children under five years of age from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), we tested 783 subjects with RDT-/PCR+ results using PCR assays to detect and confirm deletions of the pfhrp2 gene. Spatial and population genetic analyses were employed to examine the distribution and evolution of these parasites.Results.We identified 149 pfhrp2-deleted parasites, representing 6.4% of all P. falciparum infections country-wide (95% confidence interval 5.1–8.0%). Bayesian spatial analyses identified statistically significant clustering of pfhrp2 deletions near Kinshasa and Kivu. Population genetic analysis revealed significant genetic differentiation between wild-type and pfhrp2-deleted parasite populations (GST = .046, p ≤ .00001).Conclusions.Pfhrp2-deleted P. falciparum is a common cause of RDT-/PCR+ malaria among asymptomatic children in the DRC and appears to be clustered within select communities. Surveillance for these deletions is needed, and alternatives to HRP2-specific RDTs may be necessary.
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Journal articleSlater HC, Okell LC, Ghani AC, 2016,
Mathematical Modelling to Guide Drug Development for Malaria Elimination
, Trends in Parasitology, Vol: 33, Pages: 175-184, ISSN: 1471-5007Mathematical models of the dynamics of a drug within the host are now frequently used to guide drug development. These generally focus on assessing the efficacy and duration of response to guide patient therapy. Increasingly, antimalarial drugs are used at the population level, to clear infections, provide chemoprevention, and to reduce onward transmission of infection. However, there is less clarity on the extent to which different drug properties are important for these different uses. In addition, the emergence of drug resistance poses new threats to longer-term use and highlights the need for rational drug development. Here, we argue that integrating within-host pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) models with mathematical models for the population-level transmission of malaria is key to guiding optimal drug design to aid malaria elimination.
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Journal articleWalker PG, Griffin JT, Ferguson NM, et al., 2016,
Estimating the most efficient allocation of interventions to achieve reductions in Plasmodium falciparum malaria burden and transmission in Africa: a modelling study
, Lancet Global Health, Vol: 4, Pages: e474-e484, ISSN: 2214-109XBACKGROUND: Reducing the burden of malaria is a global priority, but financial constraints mean that available resources must be allocated rationally to maximise their effect. We aimed to develop a model to estimate the most efficient (ie, minimum cost) ordering of interventions to reduce malaria burden and transmission. We also aimed to estimate the efficiency of different spatial scales of implementation. METHODS: We combined a dynamic model capturing heterogeneity in malaria transmission across Africa with financial unit cost data for key malaria interventions. We combined estimates of patterns of malaria endemicity, seasonality in rainfall, and mosquito composition to map optimum packages of these interventions across Africa. Using non-linear optimisation methods, we examined how these optimum packages vary when control measures are deployed and assessed at national, subnational first administrative (provincial), or fine-scale (5 km(2) pixel) spatial scales. FINDINGS: The most efficient package in a given setting varies depending on whether disease reduction or elimination is the target. Long-lasting insecticide-treated nets are generally the most cost-effective first intervention to achieve either goal, with seasonal malaria chemoprevention or indoor residual spraying added second depending on seasonality and vector species. These interventions are estimated to reduce malaria transmission to less than one case per 1000 people per year in 43·4% (95% CI 40·0-49·0) of the population at risk in Africa. Adding three rounds of mass drug administration per year is estimated to increase this proportion to 90·9% (95% CI 86·9-94·6). Further optimisation can be achieved by targeting policies at the provincial level, achieving an estimated 32·1% (95% CI 29·6-34·5) cost saving relative to adopting country-wide policies. Nevertheless, we predict that only 26 (95% CI 22-29) of 41 countries could reduce transmissio
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Journal articleMarshall JM, Touré M, Ouédraogo AL, et al., 2016,
Key traveller groups of relevance to spatial malaria transmission: a survey of movement patterns in four sub-Saharan African countries
, Malaria Journal, Vol: 15, ISSN: 1475-2875
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